Asylum As A Tool Of Exclusion

[Photo credit: Alejandro Tamayo / San Diego Union-Tribune]

By Daniel Melo

Asylum, on its face, would seem to be a word of welcome to those fleeing violence. In the US, its connotation within immigration law is tied to the acquisition of legal status, of the ability to remain, sheltered from the harm one is fleeing from. The oft-quoted lines of Emma Lazarus’s The New Colossus on the Statute of Liberty — “Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free” —has been held out as an ode to this very idea of refuge, and of America’s greatness in the provision of it. But while both the word and its ideal may paint warm walls and windows where so many broken people can come to find safety, the US asylum system is far more like the rusted metal walls that protrude from the desert floor. The asylum system, far from being a means of protection for the many thousands displaced by capitalism’s global consequences, is but another tool of exclusion.

As is true in many other areas of immigration relief, the quantum of harm is often the starting point for any chance at success. In other words, the system creates a rather horrendous form of “incentive” if one dare call it that, where the more brutality and violence has suffered, the more compelling the case is. Asylum requires a particular brand of suffering to compel state actors to allow people some small reprieve from harm. To put it bluntly, the system considers some worthy of protection so long as it serves a particular political purpose, while others (even those that end in death) are not so fortunate. While the Trump era saw even this slim protection erode away, the asylum system has never been a boon to migrants. In fact, despite the appearance of an “impartial” judiciary that often decides asylum claims, from its very beginnings, US asylum and refugee protections were not open doors with humanitarian aims but political, exclusionary tools.

Authors Banks Miller et al. note in their work that asylum law is also rooted in material reality; i.e., capitalism shaped the contours of the law. In the US case, it was a tool to undermine the communist countries by focusing grants of asylum and refugee status on people from those nations. Far from being oriented around even vague humanitarian interests, it was instead fashioned as a political weapon. For example, during the Cold War, the US framed the vast majority of incoming Cubans as refugees but denied the same status to most Haitians who were oppressed by a series of brutal—but anti-communist—dictators. Even after the text of asylum law changed to reflect a more “egalitarian” framework, it simply painted over this reality. Reagan’s administration painted migrants from Central and South America, fleeing decades of US imperialist policy, as “economic” migrants, unworthy of asylum, while as noted above, those departing Cold War nations were far more likely to have their asylum cases approved. This is no less true today, with asylum seekers from China granted at a rate orders of magnitude greater than those from Mexico.

The misunderstood context of Lazarus’s poem itself is revealing. As Professor Walt Hunter notes, it emerged in the midst of the profoundly xenophobic and racist Chinese Exclusion Act and as the European powers were divvying up the African continent to colonize it. In that particular moment of capitalist geopolitics the lines emerged (contrary to their parroting in the mouth of neoliberal elite) that stand for something more than American exceptionalism--it is a mirror casting back the reflection of precisely the misery that such exceptionalism has wrought on so many. Lazarus’s poem is not an ode to America’s open arms but a condemnation of how it has failed to live up to its professed ideals. During our moment, the rehashing of these lines is telling--America has yet to truly face the human consequences of its role in marching capitalism around the globe and maintains its innocence to the huddled, displaced masses the world over.

The notion of asylum, however pure conceptually, is ultimately shattered into sharp pieces when set down on the ground of actual application. The political weaponization of what was supposed to be a humanitarian aim evidences a profound need to rethink the question of not just how the law is written and applied, but more fundamentally, the body of people who get to shape it. It should be no more of a surprise that asylum law ultimately fell victim to ruling class interests than the retooling of Lazarus’s poem to reflect neoliberal values and American exceptionalism. As Marx noted, the law and forms of state power that enforce it “have their roots in the material conditions of life.” So long as a choice few have the right to decide who lives and dies (albeit through the sterile and supposedly equal “rule-of-law”), we cannot achieve the aims of the solidarity that should come for those seeking asylum. Indeed, it makes it nearly impossible to look beyond the present humanitarian crises the world over to their source—capitalism itself. Justice does not stop at expanding and welcoming those fleeing harm; it looks to that which chases them.

Daniel Melo is a public sector immigration lawyer in the American Southeast who primarily works with refugees and is the son of a migrant himself. His book, Borderlines, is due out from Zer0 Books in August 2021.

Cuba is Resilient, the US is Unrelenting: An Analysis of US Activities in Cuba and the Current Protest Movement

[Photo credit: Alexandre Meneghini / Reuters]

By Canyon Ryan

On the weekend following the assassination of Haitian dictator-to-be Jovinel Moïse, with all eyes on the Carribbean, thousands of Cubans rose up in condemnation of food and medicine shortages, long queues for goods, dwindling living standards, the embargo, and the government. The protests were the largest in the last 25 years, with people turning over police cars, looting shops, throwing rocks at government buildings, and fighting with police.

The protests come just weeks after the United Nations near-unanimously voted to denounce the unilateral U.S. embargo against the nation for the 29th consecutive year, with only the settler-colonialist states of Israel and the U.S. voting against the Resolution. What’s more, last week the Wall Street Journal reported that the Biden Administration was deliberating the tempering of U.S. sanctions as a coercive measure against enemy states.

Alas, spontaneously Cubans rebelled, putting the nation in the international spotlight for having its largest protests since the Maleconazo uprising in 1994. Suddenly, Joe Biden is being forced to take a position beyond, “the U.S. stands with the people of Cuba”. Will his Administration stay true to his campaign promises to return to dialogue with the Cuban government and release the 243 additional Trump sanctions (and other restrictions), or will Biden choose a hardline position and increase sanctions against Cuba? Maybe he will sit on his hands, as most U.S. Presidents have, and allow the NGOs and CIA to slowly destabilize the social and political systems of the country, knowing full well the embargo is doing just that to the country’s economy. So far, all we have heard from Biden is that there will be no easing of restrictions Trump placed on remittances to Cuba, and Biden intends to extend sanctions on Cuban officials.

This article will analyze the U.S. interference in contemporary Cuban affairs, the Cuban protests and their roots, the social insecurities the Island is currently facing, the international coverage of these historic protests, and attempt to foresee how the protests may pan out.

US Interference in Contemporary Cuba

Beyond the U.S. imposed embargo on Cuba which has cost the Island more than $130B since 1962, the U.S. has concocted various nefarious plots designed to harm the government, and at times the people of Cuba. You may have heard of the more sensationalized stories about U.S. involvement in Cuba, post-Revolution, such as Operation Mongoose, the more than 638 assassination attempts aimed at Fidel Castro, the plot to depilate Castro’s beard, and the scheme to dose Castro with hallucinogines. But many are unfamiliar with more recent attempts to undermine the Revolution. The following examples hold relevance and add clarity to the current protest movement, and hopefully will enlighten those curious for context on Cuba.

Much of this activity has been encouraged and financed by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from the U.S., being wielded as soft-power hammers to continually oppress the Island. Allen Weinstein, cofounder of the National Endowment for Democracy (NED), once remarked, “a lot of what we do today was done covertly 25 years ago by the CIA”. Indeed, the NED through its various appendages, as well as USAID and the State Department, work surreptitiously to support anti-Castroists in a multitude of ways.

Cuban Diaspora Research Regarding Regime Change

Founded in 1999, the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies (ICCAS) was established to conduct academic research and promote discussion on Cuban and Cuban-American relations out of the University of Miami (UM). By November 2001, ICCAS was accepted for a grant of $6,000,000 by USAID titled “Cuban Transition Project” to “study and make recommendations for the reconstruction of the island once the post-Castro transition begins in earnest”.

Manuel Jorge Cutillas served as the Advisory Board’s Chairperson to the CTP for much of the project’s existence. Cutillas is the great-great-grandson of Don Facundo, a Spanish businessman who founded the Bacardi rum distillery in 1862. Raised in Santiago, Cutillas moved to the U.S. where he earned his Bachelors of Science in Troy, New York. After graduating, Cutillas moved back to Cuba and continued in his familial footsteps working as the Assistant Distillery Superintendent of Bacardi in 1955. After the 1960 Revolution, Castro’s Administration seized and nationalized Barardi properties, utilizing the revenues for the benefit of Cuba’s development. Cutillas eventually fled to the U.S., landing in Miami and settling in the Bahamas where Bacardi & Company Ltd. established its headquarters. In 1997, Cutillas became Chairperson of the Center for a Free Cuba, a seat he served until his death in 2013.

Serving as the Senior Academic Advisor for the CTP was Antonio Jorge who worked as the Vice Minister of Finance, the Chief Economist of the National Association of Manufacturers in Havana (1956-1957), and Chief Economist of the Cuban government. In 2000, ICCAS-CTP published “The U.S. Embargo and the Failure of the Cuban Economy” which aimed to analyze the effects of the blockade. Jorge’s conclusion is a “terse” one in which he proclaims “the embargo has not harmed the Cuban economy” and that it would be unwise for the U.S. to lift the embargo without a “firm commitment to the democratization and market reforms that [Castro’s] regime has stubbornly opposed for the last 40 years”. He further criticizes Castro’s “catastrophic decision to remove a prosperous, modernizing society from the western world’s political and economic orbit... for which he must assume full responsibility”, which translates to a critique of Castro’s removal of Cuba from the imperial dominance of the U.S. and support for all Western aggression against the island thus far.

Alas, this is the kind of work USAID is sponsoring. Materially biased anti-Castroist elites being paid millions to conduct ‘research’ regarding Cuban political economy while also plotting how to privatize state assets and introduce the economy to international exploitation once Castro is no longer.

The Establishment of ZunZuneo

In 2009, with direct U.S. involvement through USAID, for-profit tech contractor Creative Associates International launched “ZunZuneo”. ZunZuneo (otherwise known as the ‘Cuban Twitter’) was a website and SMS service which existed in Cuba and was used to skirt censorship laws on the Island. As part of USAID’s push for ‘internet freedom’, the platform was established to attract Cuban youth and serve as a form of communications between subversives. Establishing a Cuban user base was made easy for Creative Associates as they had seemingly illicitly obtained approximately 500,000 Cuban phone numbers from an internal government source. The Associated Press reported that the project was earmarked by USAID at an estimated $1,600,000, under an unspecified project in Pakistan. USAID has disputed this claim.

The U.S. worked tirelessly throughout the project to cover their tracks. After contracting Creative Associates to develop the software, USAID hired Mobile Accord, a Denver tech startup, to work on stabilizing the platform while also concealing its foundations. Mobile Accord considered a dozen European candidates to take over ZunZuneo, enshrouding its background throughout the process of marketing the platform, to no avail.

Messages on ZunZuneo would funnel through two countries, neither using U.S.-owned servers, so as to remove traffic from Cuban purvey and disguise U.S. involvement. The clandestine operation was activated the same year that Alan Gross was arrested for sneaking satellites into the country. Gross was working for Development Alternatives, Inc., an NGO subcontracted by USAID to help provide internet connectivity to the Island using U.S. government operated satellites. Gross smuggled laptops, smart phones, hard drives and networking equipment into Cuba while traveling with fellow ideologues (whose identities he later compromised to Cuban officials) under the cover of traveling as Jewish-American ‘humanitarian aid’ delegations. We are to believe the two projects are unrelated, as though the U.S. and its foreign appendages sponsor programs for millions of dollars designed to destabilize a designated state-sponsor of terror in a vacuum.

ZunZuneo would peak at approximately 40,000 members, collapsing without notice in 2012 as the USAID grant coffers emptied and the software proved prone to blackouts. Many users were unaware that the program was developed in the U.S. for the purpose of subversion.

Infiltration of the Hip Hop Scene

Around the same time that ZunZuneo launched, USAID (again through Creative Associates) was sponsoring and promoting the underground hip hop scene in Cuba. Aldo Rodriguez and his group Los Aldeanos had gained notoriety after the release of their album “Censurado”, a compilation of protest songs opposing the government. In a county where the government holds power over the hip-hop artist’s union (Agencia Cubana de Rap), Los Aldeanos were preaching a unique message not regularly heard by hip hop heads.

The program went much further than just sponsoring Los Aldeanos concerts. In the process of building a counter-revolutionary constituency, the contractors of the campaign established TalentoCubano.net, building a list of 200 'socially conscious youth’ they could hopefully weaponize against the Cuban state. Contractors also created a front company in Panama to funnel money into Cuba which was used to print and distribute DVD’s on the dissident cultural movement in Cuba that could then subvert Cuba’s censorship laws.

Much like the concealing of U.S. support when pitching ZunZuneo to outside financiers, Creative Associate’s pointman Rajko Bozic (who played a role in supporting the overthrow of Slobadon Milosevic in Serbia through similar means) was sure not to disclose USAID’s involvement. Numerous artists were targeted by the operation, resulting in Cuban officials detaining and confiscating incriminating evidence from participants working on behalf of the U.S. government. Thus, the organic protest movement became a weapon for USAID. What’s worse, it built reason for Cuban authorities to be skeptical of all subversive hip hop, meaning USAID delegitimize the entire phenomena, beyond their own failed operation.

Bolstering an Independent Civil Society

In the 21st century alone the U.S. has (on the books) spent more than $250,000,000 in Cuba, largely on “civil society and government” grants from the U.S. State Department and USAID, mostly funneled through the NED.

Between 2019 and 2021, Directorio Democratico Cubano (DDC), which runs Radio Republica, received approximately $1,000,000 from the State Department and USAID for radio broadcasting, humanitarian aid, civil society engagement and the like. Radio Republica considers itself “the voice of the Cuban resistance”, while the tax-exempt Miami-based DDC has since 1996, ‘promoted freedom and democracy for Cuba in the face of the current dictatorship’.

Over $1,375,302 in the NED 2020 Cuba budget was dedicated to promoting uncensored literature, broadcasts, internet and media prohibited on the Island, while an additional $1,626,022 was earmarked for supporting independent labor organizations, independent music groups, independent human rights organizations, and independent cultural organizations. Of course, the independence of these organizations is questionable considering they receive funding from the U.S. government and its private beneficiaries.

Global Americas, an “independent” think-tank that received two payments of $50,000 in 2015 and 2016 by the NED, wrote an article in May, 2018 titled “Laying the Groundwork for Insurrection: A Closer Look at the U.S. Role in Nicaragua's Social Unrest” that notes, “US [sic] support has helped play a role in nurturing the current uprisings.” U.S. support came in the form of grants from the NED, “focused on strengthening civil society, improving accountability and governance, fostering a culture of human rights, and reinforcing democratic ideals and values”. The ‘uprisings’ in question were the 2018 protests that resulted in clashes between the FSLN government and counter-revolutionary protesters; resulting in 440 estimated deaths on both sides and the unanimous U.S. Senate passage of the ‘NICA [Act]’, which prohibits Nicaragua from receiving U.S., International Monetary Foundation, and World Trade Organization loans.

US Interference in Latin America and the Caribbean

 The above information is used to demonstrate U.S. NGO interference in Cuban affairs since the 21st Century began. While just four instances, these projects are symbolic of a larger systematic attempt to undermine the Cuban Revolution. It is important to note that since 1995 Cuba has been in a state of recovery from the Special Period. This convalescence was greatly assisted by Hugo Chavez’s coming to power in Venezuela, which generated a massive wave of leftist governments achieving a position of authority in their countries and the proliferation of left-alliances across the region. Moreover, Chavez believed in the Cuban Revolution, and through South-by-South assistance sent Cuba fuel in exchange for Cuban administrators and health professionals. But many, if not all of the left in Latin America looked to Cuba as an inspiration and example of what was possible without reliance on international banks and U.S. support. Thus, this period of rehabilitation coincided with a period of Cuban pride.

However, when the pink tide ended so did many of the regional gains. Venezuela, Cuba’s greatest ally, found itself in a dire situation as oil prices plummeted, economic mismanagement caught up to the PSUV and the opposition was able to assert itself with some coordination (and U.S. assistance). U.S. interference in regional affairs further regained primacy as the U.S. turned away from much of its earlier activities in West Asia and started prying into Latin America and the Caribbean once more. In order to regain hegemony in the region, the U.S. overthrew Jean Bertrand Aristide in Haiti (for the second time), Hugo Chavez for a period of days in Venezuela, and Manuel Zelaya in Honduras, and assisted in the lawfare removal of Lula da Silva in Brazil. All the while, the U.S. was establishing relationships with leaders happy to be sycophants for the Empire to the North.

Cuba, forever defiant under revolutionary leadership, refused to comply with regional alterations directed by U.S. pressure and continued to build alliances with the pink tide governments which remained in positions of power, namely Bolivia, Nicaragua and Venezuela. For these alliances Cuba has continued to suffer, as have her allies. Bolivia was most recently the target of a U.S. supported anti-Indigenous coup, which conducted massacres of peaceful Andean protesters, was quickly submerged by COVID19, and postponed elections for over a year. Incredibly, Evo Morales’ party Movement Towards Socialism (Movimiento Al Socialismo) was able to, despite many legal restrictions and threats, successfully regain power in the elections with Luis Arce securing the presidency in the first-round. However, both Nicaragua and Venezuela have found themselves being suffocated by U.S. sanctions and in serious conflicts with the U.S. NGO-sponsored opposition. Caracas, Havana and Managua have been termed the Troika of Tyranny, and the U.S. Empire is willing to destroy these defiant nations at any cost.

Since taking power, the Troika has existed much to the ire of Washington. Why? Could it be that in 1998 Hugo Chavez inherited a country in which two-thirds of the population subsisted on less than two dollars a day and in the following years decreased the Gini Coefficient by 54%, reduced poverty from 70.8% (1996) to 21% (2010) and extreme poverty from approximately 40% to 7.3%, while 20,000,000 benefited from PSUV sponsored anti-poverty programs? And in Nicaragua, after the U.S. sponsored Contra terrorists plagued the country in indiscriminate attacks while USAID and the NED built an opposition coalition to run the FSLN out of office, Daniel Ortega successfully regained the presidency in 2006. Since then, the FSLN has annually increased minimum wage 5-7% above inflation, improved working conditions across the country and sliced poverty 30% between 2005 and 2014. Could it be that these countries are setting too sincere of an example that the State can benefit its people, if it holds the capitalist class accountable and assists the development of socialism within its borders, while practicing anti-imperialist solidarity abroad? Or is it simply their ability to defy the U.S. at every regime change attempt pursued that results in U.S. terror, as both countries exist in approximate turmoil as the U.S. actively works to undermine both socialist governments through sanctions, supporting oppositional media, parties and civil society, and promoting violent protests while condemning any and all responses by the government.

Cuba, on the other hand, is different. There were no soaring highs for Cuba in the early 2000s and the Island has not found itself mired in street conflicts or in political battles with an opposition. Instead, Cuba is a seasoned player in the game of U.S. interference and has successfully snubbed the Empire on many occasions throughout its history. The greatest difficulties in Cuba come in the form of economic constriction, which results in a demoralized population and a consistently questionable future for the populace as goods become more scarce. Cuba is resilient, but the U.S. is unrelenting in its dedication to complicate the Revolution. Indeed, today Cuba faces one of its greatest domestic challenges to date: a youth who are indifferent to the Revolution and yearning for a way out of the current recession.

NGOs Wield Culture as Coercion

The slogans of the protests are said to be “Liberty” (Libertad), “Down with the Dictatorship” (Abajo la Dictadura), “Diaz-Canel, Motherfucker” (Diaz-Canel, Singao) and often “Fatherland and Life” (Patria Y Vida). “Fatherland and Life” is a collaborative song by Yotuel, Gente de Zona, Descemer Bueno, Maykel Osorbo and El Funky. It is a reference to “Patria o Muerte”, a phrase popularized by Fidel Castro throughout his presidency meaning “Fatherland or Death”, which became a marked Revolutionary slogan and a call to arms for revolutionaries around the world. As such, the song exists as a testement to anti-Castro and anti-communist dissent; and to an extent, a rebuke of the struggles of anti-colonialism.

The song is a collaborative effort by Cuban artists who speak out against the Revolutionary government, two from the San Isidro Movement (MSI) and three who have left the Island. Yotuel, Gente de Zona and Descemer Bueno all live in Miami, while Maykel Osboro and El Funky remain in Cuba. Press in Cuba loathes the song, while press in the Empire lauds it. The music video begins with a Cuban Peso displaying the face of Jose Marti disintegrating in flames only to be replaced with the face of George Washington on one-half. The lyrics mention MSI, other dissident artists, Cuban government repression and the “evil Revolution”; while the video shows scenes of the artists singing and crying, Cuban police wrestling protesters, and other national images like the Cuban Flag and the Cespedes Flag of Yara.

Yotuel, described by the Wall Street Journal as a ‘superstar rapper’, explained in an interview with Billboard that it was the 500th anniversary of the founding of Havana that ‘pushed him over the edge’. He elaborates, “for me, it was 440 years… Before the revolution, we had a beautiful Cuba; now we have ruins. From that point on, I said, ‘I’m not going to be quiet anymore’.” Thus, we have a Cuban artist living in Miami yearning for the years of colonialism, subjugation, and dictatorship. And putting it as plainly as possible, the founder of the MSI in an interview with WSJ says, “we want democracy, we want a free market, we want opportunity”.

In another article, I explained that the MSI is composed of an assortment of on-the-Island dissident artists demanding more freedom of expression. They are a collective of musicians, producers, performance artists, painters, etc. that, despite their more problematic membership (such Denis Solis, who used homophobic and mysognyst language and praised Trump while being detained) and goals, have valid desires that should not be outrightly dismissed. MSI developed after the passing of Decree 349, the first law signed into effect by Miguel Diaz-Canel which prohibits artists from ‘providing their services’ in any open space without government approval. The government’s reasoning for this was that artists not employed by the government are able to circumvent taxes. But the law also gives the government the ability to detain any artists demonstrating in public without prior approval. This is the frustration which built MSI.

The Cuban police do harass dissident artists, through scare tactics, surveillance, arbitrary arrests and the like. Some of the largest non-authorized protests to occur on the island before the July protests were at the Ministry of Culture where MSI and sympathizers rallied in solidarity with detained MSI members. Indeed, there was even the incident of residents from San Isidro preventing authorities from arresting MSI member and ‘Homeland and Life collaborator‘ Maykel Osboro. So it should be understood that Cuban authorities do not necessarily have popular support in this repression. But it should also be understood that the Cuban authorities have other reasoning behind their actions which go beyond the artist's calls for ‘human rights’ and freedom of expression.

MSI members are known to promote sanctions on the Cuban economy and remittances, and in October of 2020 were telling a South Florida audience to vote for Trump because of his hardline stance on Cuba. The group has also called for a Cuban-American strike on remittances to struggling Cuban families. Denis Solis, the homophobic rapper mentioned above who upon being arrested shouted, “Trump 2020! That is my President” admitted to authorities that a Cuban-American in Miami had offered him $200USD to carry out political work. Not to mention that Solis was being arrested for failing to appear before National Revolutionary Police to explain his links to “a terrorist element based in Miami” twice. A Cuban journalist named Nelson Julio Alvarez, who is employed by the USAID-sponsored NGO ADN, detailed in a Telescopio Cubano Facebook group how he received $150-200USD to be ‘provocative’. These provocations can come in many forms, from staging protests and hunger strikes, to throwing molotov cocktails at gas stations and breaking windows at the bank. The motivation for the latter was not ideological but financial, being payment for propagande par le fiat of 200-500 CUC (before the process of currency unification had begun).

Of the initial twenty-to-thirty protestors at the Ministry of Culture, the Cuban government counts nine as U.S. NGO employees. Also at that protest was Chargé d’affaires for the US Embassy in Cuba Timothy Zuñiga-Brown, visiting the group and transporting protesters. Similarly, in 2020 the NED sent Fundacion Cartel Urbano $110,000 for their “Empowering Cuban Hip Hop Artists as Leaders in Society”, where artists met at the Hip Hop Summit in Colombia to “share their experiences of social transformation. The organization will mentior [sic] artists and provide technical capacity to strengthen their work. The group will also raise awareness about the role hip hop artists have in strengthening democracy in the region”. These programs, as Raul Castro correctly points out, are not meant to benefit a country that the U.S. has held down for more than 60 years, but to sow division in a Cuba unified by the struggles against the omnipresent embargo.

We must question how different (if at all) the intent of the hip hop infiltration projects in 2020 are compared to the projects of 2014. It is clear that hip hop culture is being weaponized as a soft power tool by the U.S. to promote dissident artists and spark rebellions much like those seen in late 2020 and July 2021. And what is a dissident artist if backed by a foreign government, both politically and financially, which holds the dissident’s government hostage? When former CIA head and Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, Senators Marco Rubio and Bob Menendez are supporting a social movement, shouldn’t this alone be cause for concern?

Social Media and the Influence of Celebrities, Bots and a Hashtag

As with all protests and international movements these days, many interested in what was going on in Cuba turned to social media for up-to-date coverage on the protests. There they may have seen Pitbull’s plea for Jeff Bezos and the capitalist class to do something to support the protests in Cuba, or Lebanese-born Mia Khalifa using Cuban slang for ‘motherfucker’ (Singao) directed at President Miguel Diaz Canel while promising to never step foot on the Island until there is a change in the regime. Similarly, the Miami Heat and Miami Dolphins came out in support of the protests, posting photos of neon signs reading “Patria y Vida” on Instagram and tweeting #SOSCUBA. There were also tweets and Instagram statements from musician-turned-businesswoman a hundred-millionaire Gloria Estfan; the singer-songwriter with a racially insensitive past, Camila Cabello; John McCain supporter Daddy Yankee; alleged plagiarist Ricky Martin; and other prominent Spanish-speaking musicians.

However, aside from celebrities spouting the messages of support for a “Free Cuba”, there were also many lesser known (and entirely unknown) accounts that took to Twitter to amplify the protests in Cuba, including “anti-Castrist” Miami-based accounts (such as the bot-attached, Trump promoting @Yusnaby) and disinformation accounts. Foreign Minister Bruno Rodriguez noted that the Cuban government had detected the use of ‘bots’ on social media spurring the #SOSCUBA trend. But where did the hashtag originate from? Cuba, surely? No. Not Cuba, but instead her former colonizer Spain, and the Cuban-American diaspora (largely based in Miami).

The first account to use #SOSCUBA was located in Spain, automating 1,300 tweets on July 10 and 11. Twitter account @carnota_96 later sent out a request for users to tag pop-culture artists to call attention to what was going on in Cuba, receiving 1,100 responses mostly from bots; the results of which have been displayed in the introductory paragraph above. More than 1,500 accounts participating in the hashtag campaign were created on July 10 and 11, as well. While this may not sound like a lot, if 1,000 accounts tweeted #SOSCUBA 1,000 times in a day can, there would be 1,000,000 tweets supporting that trending hashtag. This is the influence that bot operations can, and will have in the future.

There were also copypastas of tweets reading, “we Cubans don't want the end of the embargo if that means the regime and dictatorship stays, we want them gone, not more communism”. This is not so different from the bot activity we saw come out in support of the 2019 coup in Bolivia, where copypastas consistently read, “friends from everywhere, in Bolivia there was NO COUP” and the more than 100,000 accounts born in two weeks to endorse the Anez dictatorship. Moreover, @BotSentinel, a Twitter account which identifies inauthentic account activity referenced more than 2,099 posts since July 11 tweeting with mentions of #SOSCUBA. I have noted that ZunZuneo was created around the same time that the ‘Twitter Revolutions’ of the Arab Spring were taking place. Is it really so different this time?

Equally disdainful has been the coverage of the protests. For one, there has been the incessant use of protests being mislabeled as those taking place in Cuba. Protests in Alexandria, Egypt from 2011; Washington D.C. in 2017; Buenos Aires, Argentina; and Miami, Florida are being shared as evidence of wide-spread unrest on the Island. The same has occurred with injured children, as videos from Venezuela are being shared as though this is the situation in Cuba. The Associated Press, Fox News, The Guardian, The Financial Times, The New York Times, The Washington Times, and Voice of America have taken this to a different extreme, sharing photos and videos of pro-government rallies as evidence of anti-government protests. It is easy to discern the difference due to the use of the M-26-7 flag, which was used by Castro and his rebel army during the Revolution. What’s more, there has been clear evidence of Twitter verifying bot accounts spewing anti-communist jargon.

Then there is the Canada-based Instagram account @revolucioncuba that has grown in popularity since the protests began. The account’s first post is titled “Communist Haven or Corruption? Cuba Today” in May 2020, accusing the government of living as capitalists while keeping the people poor and condemning arbitrary arrests. The second infographic titled “The Extortion of Cuban Doctors” was published two days later, where the account accuses the government of trafficking healthcare professionals around the world, a line right out of Jair Bolsonaro and Mike Pompeo’s playbook. Note as well, the accusation being made here is during the first months of the COVID19 pandemic. What does @revolucioncuba do? Smear the health professionals on the front lines. One of the most shared posts is the “If You Aren’t Cuban I Am Begging You to Share This”, which alleges that the government is starving the people of Cuba and exploiting the embargo as cover for repression.

The wave of online activism in the form of Instagram infographics is relatively new, but has achieved major success in disinformation and misinformation campaigns for the cause of regime change. This is especially true for people not familiar with Cuban affairs who want to feel like they are doing something to support the people of Cuba without any understanding of Cuba. In reality, they are unknowingly participating in informational warfare on behalf of imperialism.

U.S. Politicians and Opposing Views on Protests

U.S. politicians on both sides of the aisle found themselves in agreement on the need to voice support for the U.S.-deemed ‘pro-democracy’ protests in Cuba, in more ways than one. Governor Rick DeSantis called on the Cuban military to overthrow the government, while Miami Mayor Fracis Suarez (who once gave Juan Guaido the key to the city) recommended the use of U.S. airstrikes being explored in Cuba. Congressman Anthony Sabatini called for an ultimatum for the Communist Party to cede power or “be persecuted and executed thereafter”. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Bernie Sanders issued statements condemning the U.S. embargo that were otherwise not too dissimilar from the Bob Menendez and Marco Rubio joint-resolution condemning the ‘authoritarian regime’. Coral Gables Mayor Vince Lago’s administration also  cancelled an art exhibit that included one Chinese and one Cuban artist for their alleged communist sympathies. Talk about suppression of association and artistic expression!

Aside from the social Democrats, most references to the protests ignore any mention of the embargo. Both @revolucioncuba and @humanitieshearts, as well as warmongering GOP and Dems have made the case that it is not the embargo that Cubans are protesting; no, it is not even the food, medicine and commodity shortage that the Cubans are protesting. On the contrary, the argument from the U.S. and MSI is that Cubans are protesting for freedom!

They are correct in some ways and wrong in others. Cubans are protesting for freedom: freedom from the embargo, freedom to health, freedom from hunger, freedom to a decent living standard, freedom from blackouts and electrical shortages, etc. And they are also protesting for freedom from governmental repression, which is certainly real and often excessive (or at least seemingly unnecessary). It is not always one or the other either, and this is something I am sure we can relate to when questioning what freedom is and entails. And what freedoms must be curtailed for others to be promoted. Socialist freedoms are different from liberal freedoms, but the two can overlap, especially in the 21st century dominated by a liberal international order.

Still, it is relevant to understand the freedoms those outside of Cuba are calling for are quite different from those inside of Cuba. It is a noble desire, and one easy to support, when we call for more freedom of speech in Cuba. That poets can be consistently harassed by police for having a different political alignment than that of the state is not something to praise, especially as Marxists and dissidents in our own countries. But circumstances are quite different in Cuba. In Cuba, there is a revolutionary government in power, committed to the ideals of socialism, willing to be flexible with economic freedoms; a government that incorporates the voice of the Cuban populace as a whole in the construction of a state constitution. That is the kind of freedom of speech they have in Cuba. The freedom of speech they do not have is that which is hostile to the socialist government and revolution, that which is diametrically opposed to socialism in calls for a ‘free market’, and that which is bought and paid-for, especially by the U.S. Similarly, where is Cuba’s freedom of speech? Under the U.S. embargo, Cuba has been prevented from ever reaching her true potential, as she remains under the thumb of the Empire 90-miles North. In the U.S. you can largely say whatever you want to say, but to who? Is the news going to have us on to talk about socialism? Only to disparage us. Even a social Democrat like Bernie Sanders was ignored, mocked, and dismissed when he ran for President of the U.S., and especially so when he commented favorably about the literacy campaign and healthcare system in Cuba. Capitalism chooses who has freedom of speech and who is forced to listen. The differences are striking.

Cuba was engulfed in anti-government protests because the people are desperate; and the people are desperate because the U.S. holds them hostage. While U.S. politicians and the diaspora blame the Cuba government for holding them hostage, it is quite clear who has the upper-hand in this conflict. But the issue for Cubans, who are some of the most educated people in the world, is that they have heard about the embargo for the last 62 years. They know what el bloqueo is, how it affects their lives and the economy. But they are still frustrated, and they have every right to be. The embargo is clearly not going anywhere. And the Cuban people cannot destroy ‘the blockade’, as it is foreign and immaterial. What is material and present is the government, which is explicitly meant to be accountable to the people.

On April 6, 1960, Deputy Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Lester Mallory wrote to the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Richard Rubottom, acknowledging the mass support for Castro and recommending sanctions to deny Cuba money and supplies as an alternative to invasion. Describing it as ‘adroit and inconspicuous’, he believed it would successfully “decrease monetary and real wages, bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government [sic]”. At that time, Cuba was able to turn to the USSR, who were happy to have comrades in the West. When the USSR collapsed, the Island was forced to fend for itself under U.S. pressure. The election of Hugo Chavez was a breath of fresh air, but not enough to keep the Island financially afloat. And today, China has replaced the USSR as Cuba remains under suffocating sanctions, but China’s role in Cuba -despite being the most contendable superpower opposed to the U.S.- is incomparable to the assistance from the Soviets. With the U.S. never willing to let Cubans live but always concerned about ‘Cuban liberty’, it makes sense the Cuban people are taking their anger out on the Cuban government. And for the younger generation, this makes complete sense. The gains of the Revolution are all but declining, and despite the U.S. hatred for Cuba, Americans are happy to flaunt their lavish life-styles online to Cuban audiences and to promote and pedestalize the Cuban diaspora and anti-communist commands every election cycle. The youth do not see the benefits of the Revolution but only hear of how good things were, so their vexation is certainly justified.

Policing Cuba-Centered Protests on the Island and in the U.S.

Beginning on July 11, protests erupted in Cuba, spreading to more than 58 locations on the Island. The first protest took place in St. Antonio de los Banos in response to rising prices, commodity, food and fuel shortages. I have explained elsewhere that Cuba is going through a process of currency unification, the much overdue monetary maneuver of ending the circulation of the Cuban Convertible Peso and combining its value with the Cuban Peso. This has resulted in the devaluation of hard currency on the Island while simultaneously raising prices. Despite government efforts to curtail the decline of purchasing price power per population, the pandemic has made this activity all the more difficult to control.

As news of the protests circulated on social media, more Cubans took to the streets to demonstrate their frustrations with current living standards. Almost immediately, Diaz-Canel traveled from Havana to the site of the first protest to request calm and dialogue with the outraged population. Nonetheless, rallies around the Island continued to grow, and became more disruptive as time went on. The expansion of the protests prompted the government to shut down internet access across the Island. Some marches were allowed to take place with no resistance while other protests were met with a heavier hand. It is important to note however that in Cuba, little-to-no tear gas was used, rubber bullets were not indiscriminately shot at protestors. The first and only reported death occurred on the second day of protests, when one man, aged 36, was killed by the police during a clash between demonstrators and the State outside a government building. Videos showing police officers entering the homes of alleged provocateurs and detaining them have disseminated profusely, with one recorded instance of police shooting a protest participant days later while in his home. Many videos have circulated of police brutality, with police fighting with protesters, chasing down protesters, and dragging protesters out of assemblies. The scenes were not all that dissimilar from those displayed by U.S. police in Los Angeles just days ago, where they shot LGBTQ+ counter-protesters point-blank with rubber bullets, battered protests and detained dozens while defending right wing extremists freedom of speech.

Cubans demonstrated peacefully in most areas but there were certainly exceptions. Protesters toppled police vehicles and ordinary cars, looted MLC shops, vandalized buildings and provoked police officers by swinging at them and throwing rocks. Marches were held where American flags were flown. In response to the chaos, police eventually filled the streets with hundreds being arrested. Diaz-Canel called all revolutionaries to the streets to defend the country from the vandals, a request that set off alarms in the global North. This was not a call for street skirmishes but for counter-demonstrations, despite what U.S. politicians are arguing. For the most part, the protests have since calmed, with one video posted by Congresswoman Maria Elvira Salazar showing a single man shouting “libertad” holding a sign walking through the streets of Cuba, being laughed at by the person recording.

Days after the first protest, Diaz-Canel admitted government responsibility for errors regarding food and commodity shortages, and spoke of the need for dialogue and not hate. A common critique is that Cuban government has been focusing too much on the construction of lavish hotels throughout the crisis when monetary reserves are provenly scarce. This is especially frustrating considering there have been no short-term gains as tourism has plummeted against the backdrop of the pandemic and Cuba is reporting its highest numbers since COVID19 hit the Island, with the worst contagion rate per capita in Latin America. In the beginning, Cuba was reporting the best numbers, owing that success to their medical brigades. But since the financial crisis began to accelerate throughout 2020, people cannot afford to stay inside and self-isolate as they need to stand in queues for hours and rely on each other through this trying time. Thus is the cynical nature of sanctions.

The situation has been far more tame in the U.S., where the Cuban diaspora have held numerous rallies in solidarity with the protesters on the Island. Two men in Tampa were arrested when attempting to overtake an Interstate exit ramp under Governor DeSantis’s new anti-riot law. However, critics have also noted the preponderance of #SOSCUBA protesters in Florida not being arrested, and in some instances being waved through police-lines or joined by officers. In Orlando police escorted SOS Cuba protesters through the streets. Another Orlando protest consisted of Cuban-Americans calling for U.S. military intervention. There was also the SOS Cuba protest where the Miami police chief found himself in a debate with Proud Boys who condemned him for tacitly supporting Black Lives Matter in 2015. Notably, the former Chair of the Miami Proud Boys chapter was outed as a FBI informant last year. Yet somehow, liberals are still confused why, when they turn out for protests in support of those taking place in Cuba, they find themselves surrounded by the MAGA crowd.

Conclusion

Since the protests first began, much attention has been put on President Biden, who during his presidential campaign vowed to reverse the anti-Cuba policies of his predecessor Trump. The Biden Administration was pressed enough before July to issue several statements about Cuba not being a top priority; only for it to become a ‘top priority’ overnight. Biden has vowed not to repeal Trump sanctions on remittances and signaled to Miami officials his Administration would be extending Magnitsky sanctions on Cuban officials, while also ordering a review of possible first steps to ‘ease U.S. policy’ toward the Cuban people. Of course, that easing consists of ‘holding the regime accountable’, promoting access to the internet, increasing U.S. Embassy staff levels to ‘better facilitate civil society engagement’, and exploring further sanctions on Cuban officials ‘who committed human rights violations against peaceful protesters’. The Biden Administration also met with ‘Cuban American leaders’, such as the virulently anti-communists Gloria and Emilio Estefan whose collective net worth is well above $500,000,000, to hear policy suggestions. With the Biden Administration posturing that they will be easing the suffering of Cubans, it appears more likely than not that Biden will be accelerating the pressure brought on by Trump.

Arguably, the situation in Cuba under the revolutionary government has never been more uncertain. A theme consistently pushed by the government is the idea of continuity (continuidad), something the current government both retains and lacks. It is retained in the socialist system existing as it has: steadfast, flexible, contradictory, militant, bureaucratic, and democratic. What the Diaz-Canel Administration lacks is the flare to hold that organizational quandary together, something Fidel Castro excelled in. Critics of Raul often asserted that his lack of charisma would be a serious defect of his leadership capacity, but this was overcome by his experience in government, his role in the Revolution and the respect gained through his ability to make economic reforms. If it were not a time of crisis, this may be something that would not be an issue for Diaz-Canel. But as Cuba is indeed in a state of permanent crisis, constant economic affliction, and persistent counter-revolutionary sabotage, these issues come to the fore quickly.      

However, despite presumed deficiencies in the revolutionary government’s leadership capacity, without a doubt the most pressing issue Cuba faces in terms of sovereignty is the U.S. embargo and U.S. subversion. Clearly, the U.S. has committed itself to specific sectors which it believes will bring about the most disruption for Cuba. The first is economic strangulation through the embargo, sanctions, and holds on remittances; coupled with denying Cuba access to its allies and international financial institutions. Second is the expansion of access to the internet and social media, under the belief that dissidents can use these forms of communication to undermine the government. This is furthered by the manipulation of social media so that anti-Cuba trends proliferate through bot accounts, eventually finding the messages picked up by ordinary people and celebrities alike. Third is the utilization of hip hop culture and the arts as a form of soft-power pressure, by promoting artists otherwise deemed counter-revolutionary by the government. And fourth is the promotion of civil society with an explicit emphasis on documenting human rights abuses, government failings and alleged corruption. Cuba must act with caution in all realms, on all issues. To overstep can bring invasion, to understep can bring rebellion. The revolutionary government exists only with the support of the people, and therefore must place the people’s interests first, before the government’s own. Hence Cuba’s lifting of tariffs on imported goods, despite being strapped for cash. Undoubtedly, the road ahead is rocky, and only unified can Cubans come out on top of this crisis.

The people of the world must come together in protest of the illegal U.S. embargo, against Western sabotage and interference in Cuba affairs, in support of the Cuban Revolution and its ideals, and in solidarity with the Revolutionary people of Cuba. Demand resolutions and proclamations, hold demonstrations and solicit the attention of the media, and tell friends and family about the successes of the Revolution in spite of U.S. obstruction. While Cuba fights for reconciliation and sovereignty, we must assist the uphill battle as best we can in calling for an end to the inhuman embargo on Cuba.

¡HASTA LA VICTORIA SIEMPRE! ¡SOCIALISMO O MUERTE! ¡VENCEREMOS!

Degrowth: An Environmental Ideology With Good Intentions, Bad Politics

By Collin Chambers

Republished from Liberation School.

The planet is experiencing multiple environmental crises: biodiversity loss, deforestation, increased rates of pandemics, chemical pollution, soil depletion, water contamination and shortages, runaway non-renewable energy consumption, and climate change. “Degrowth” is an environmental ideology that arose as a political response to these compounding crises. Degrowth was originally termed by André Gorz in 1972. Gorz argued that global environmental balance, which is predicated upon non-growth (or “degrowth”), is not compatible with the capitalist system, which requires “accumulation for the sake of accumulation” [1]. Degrowth, according to Gorz, is thus a challenge to capitalism itself.

Degrowth has become increasingly popular among many environmentalists and leftists. There are some who even call themselves “degrowth communists” [2]. Thus, it’s important to have a clear understanding of exactly what degrowth is and whether it has the potential to advance or hold back the class struggle.

Jason Hickel, a prominent proponent of degrowth, defines it like this: “The objective of degrowth is to scale down the material and energy throughput of the global economy, focusing on high-income nations with high levels of per-capita consumption” [3]. The degrowth perspective asks why society is so obsessed with “growth” (measured by Gross Domestic Product) and seeks to deconstruct the entire “ideology of growth.” The “ideology of growth” is used by the capitalist class to argue that more and more growth is needed to overcome poverty and to create jobs. This is bourgeois ideology in the sense that capitalism relies upon and produces the artificial scarcity to which we’re subjected.

The reality is that, in developed capitalist countries like U.S., there is an overabundance of material wealth and that scarcity is socially produced by the capitalist market and private ownership. Degrowth is correct on the point that if wealth were redistributed then there would indeed be abundance. However, even though proponents of degrowth are well intentioned and truly want to solve environmental crises, the political-economic methods and solutions that degrowth calls for actually work against creating the critical mass necessary to make a socialist revolution here in the U.S. I address each of these below by showing how 1) degrowth reproduces Malthusian ideas about so-called “natural limits;” 2) it’s anti-modern and anti-technological orientation lacks a class perspective; and 3) there are key practical issues with deploying degrowth ideas in the class struggle itself.

The Connections between Thomas Malthus and Degrowth

Thomas Malthus was an aristocratic political-economist who did much of his work before the development of industrial-scale agriculture. In his 1798 book, An Essay on the Principles of Population, Malthus argued that in every geographic region there are particular resource limits or “carrying capacities” [4]. Malthus’ so-called “law of population” says that unchecked population growth will outstrip this carrying capacity that eventually leads to a “natural check” in the form of massive deaths from starvation and disease to bring the population back under the carrying capacity. Malthus blamed poor people for “unchecked” population growth and argued against policies to alleviate people from abject poverty because it delayed the inevitable: the “natural check” of overpopulation. Rising wages, Malthus said, led to workers having more children and thereby creating overpopulation. He blamed workers themselves for economic crises, with a convenient argument against rising wages. Marx rebuffed Malthus’ erroneous theories, clarifying that “every special historic mode of production has its own special laws of population,” and that crises were caused by capital, not by workers [5]. (This is also a point on which he diverged from Darwin, who adopted Malthus’ ideas of population).

Much of this same Malthusian discourse continues to exist today as an explanation for problems such as environmental degradation and poverty. However, the development of industrial agriculture and the production of increasingly higher crop/food yields proved much of Malthus’ theories incorrect.

Malthusianism focuses on “overpopulation” as a main cause of environmental degradation. Degrowth actually reproduces this faulty notion through the proposition that once resources and wealth are equally redistributed (which degrowth rightly wants to do), there must be some “check” on population because, as population grows without any added economic growth, people will eventually have access to fewer and fewer resources. For instance, Giorgos Kallis, another major proponent of the movement, says that “degrowth envisions radically reducing the surplus” and advocates so-called “self-limitations” where there are “collective decisions to refrain from pursuing all that could be pursued” [6]. Rather than the typical Malthusian “natural” external limits, degrowth goes a step further: it calls for a collective enforcement of the internalization of Malthusian ideas of limits and constraints.

The target of degrowth, Kallis declares, is “not just capitalism, but also productivism” [7]. Proponents of degrowth argue that any type of “economic growth is ecologically unsustainable—whether it is capitalist growth or socialist does not make a difference” [8]. In doing so they artificially equate the two antagonistic systems and abstract away from the qualitative differences between socialist and capitalist growth. Kallis justifies this claim by arguing that if we did not change consumption levels in a post-carbon energy regime, then nothing would really change in terms of environmental destruction because “the manufacturing of renewable energies requires lots of earth materials. And the fact that they cost more than fossil fuels might have something to do with their lower energy returns and higher land requirements” [9]. Thus, degrowth does not really have an ecological theory of capitalism, but an ecological theory of accumulation. For degrowth, any type of accumulation is bad and requires increased “material throughput.”

False equivalences between different social systems

But do proponents of degrowth know what accumulation entails? Accumulation simply means reinvesting the surplus back into production (either to expand or repair existing means of production). The accumulation of a surplus is necessary in any society. In his discussions of the reproduction schemas in the second volume of Capital, for instance, Marx writes that there has to be some sort of accumulation in order to reproduce existing society, to replace and repair fixed capital like machinery and roads, societal infrastructures, to care for those who can’t work, and so on. There also has to be surpluses for, say, pandemics and droughts.

The difference is that accumulation under socialism is guided by the workers themselves who collectively determine what and how much surplus to produce and how to use it. Under capitalism, accumulation happens for accumulation’s sake, without a plan, and purely in the interests of private profit. Under socialism, accumulation benefits society as a whole, including even the ecosystems we inhabit. When workers are in control of the surplus, will we not develop and grow the productive forces to make life better and easier for ourselves and more sustainable for the earth and its inhabitants? Wouldn’t we especially grow green productive forces to build more (and better) schools, public transportation, etc.? Shouldn’t socialists in the U.S. strive to repair the underdevelopment of imperialism by assisting in the development of productive forces in the formerly colonized world? While there are sufficient surpluses of, say, housing in the U.S., there are certainly not surpluses of housing in the entire world.

Since the rise of neoliberal capitalism, the size of the working-class stratum composing the “labor aristocracy” has substantially reduced. Whom exactly are we telling to “self-limit” what we consume and live at a time when most workers in the U.S. are living paycheck to paycheck, and accumulating more and more debt? Wages have remained stagnant since the 1970s while prices have increased over 500 percent. Who exactly is supposed to limit themselves, and to what? Isn’t the problem that the masses are limited by capitalism?

Degrowth is, in essence, a form of ecological austerity for working-class people [10]. Stated simply, by focusing so much on the consumption habits of workers within capitalism and so little on the conditions and relations of production, proponents of degrowth end up reproducing Malthusian ideas of “natural limits.” 

We must analytically evaluate production and show how production “produces consumption” itself [11]. The wasteful and environmentally unsustainable consumption patterns of the working class are not produced by “personal” choice but are system-induced. Every day, millions of workers in the U.S. commute to work in single occupant vehicles not because we “choose” to drive. It’s because public transportation is so unreliable (if it exists at all), jobs in the labor market are so unstable and temporary that few workers are actually able to live close to work, and the rents around major industries tend to be unaffordable for our class.

Then there is planned obsolescence, such as when commodities like cell phones are produced to break every two years. When capitalism is overthrown and replaced with socialism, we can produce things that are “built to last” because our aim is to satisfy society’s needs and not private profit. Indeed, Marx argues that capitalist production in itself is wasteful, even in its “competitive-stage:”

“Yet for all its stinginess, capitalist production is thoroughly wasteful with human material, just as its way of distributing its products through trade, and its manner of competition, make it very wasteful of material resources, so that it loses for society what it gains for the individual capitalist” [12].

Degrowth is antithetical to Marxism

Proponents of degrowth argue that there are absolute “planetary limits” and a fixed “carrying capacity” that cannot be surpassed by humans if we want to avoid ecological collapse. This is not only pessimistic in that it dismisses the idea that, under socialism, we could figure out new sustainable ways to grow, but it’s also completely devoid of class analysis. There’s no distinction between socially-produced limits and natural limits.

Degrowth is anti-modern, anti-technological, and anti-large scale production and infrastructure. Kallis argues that “only social systems of limited size and complexity can be governed directly rather than by technocratic elites acting on behalf of the populace… Many degrowth advocates, therefore, oppose even ‘green’ megastructures like high-speed trains or industrial-scale wind farms[!]” [13]. 

The same can be said about degrowth solutions to the problems the capitalist agricultural system creates. Proponents of degrowth propose small scale (both urban and rural) methods of agriculture production to replace industrial-scale agriculture. They, in fact, glorify and romanticize “peasant economies.” 

Despite the problems of capitalist industrial agriculture, there are two main benefits of industrial-scale agriculture. First, it has drastically increased yields. At the present moment, there is enough food produced to feed 11 billion people. Second, industrial farming has thoroughly decreased the backbreaking labor needed for agricultural and food production. In 1790, 90 percent of the U.S. workforce labored on farms. In 1900, it was 35 percent At the present moment, only one percent of the U.S. workforce works on farms [14]. 

Certainly, in any just society we would want to spread out food production more evenly amongst the population. But getting rid of industrial-scale agriculture and reverting to small-scale peasant and small landowner agriculture would require massive numbers of workers to go back to the land and perform backbreaking agricultural work. Such a transformation would inevitably reduce agricultural yield substantially, increasing the possibility of food insecurity and hunger among vast swathes of the population. And what would we do with the commodities and infrastructure we’d have to destroy to create such plots of land? Moreover, such a vision necessitates the redistribution of land from private ownership of large landholders. Is this achieved through revolution or through governmental reforms? In either case, if we’re struggling to reclaim land then why not broaden our horizons and redistribute land in the interests of the environment and the people, including Indigenous and other oppressed nations in the U.S.?

Degrowth is, furthermore, idealist and divorced from the material reality within which U.S. workers currently live. Matt Huber, a Marxist environmental geographer, argues that a “truly humane society must commit to relieving the masses from agricultural labor,” and that we cannot act as if “small-scale agricultural systems are much of a ‘material basis’ for a society beyond industrial capitalism” [15]. This is not to say that small-scale and urban farming are undesirable, but that they’re insufficient in a country like the U.S. The Cuban model of urban farming and agriculture–which is a heroic achievement of the Cuban Revolution–can’t simply be mapped onto this country or the rest of the world.

Additionally, we shouldn’t forgo modern technologies that already exist just because they are “large scale” or because they currently contribute to environmental degradation within capitalist society. Doing so would in effect produce more ecological waste!

In an important piece on capitalism and ecology, Ernest Mandel writes: “it is simply not true that modern industrial technology is inevitably geared towards destroying the environmental balance. The progress of the exact sciences opens up a very wide range of technical possibilities” [16]. Increased rates of pollution and environmental degradation occur because capitalists pursue profits at the expense of the environment, not because of the technologies themselves. Socialists have to distinguish between instruments of production and their use under capitalism.

Degrowth and building the class struggle

In the U.S., degrowth remains an ideology that is relatively socially isolated but gaining influence among environmentalists and some on the left. It’s an ideology of guilt rather than revolutionary action. The ideas from degrowth will not appeal to masses of exploited and oppressed people who actually need more, not less. Imagine, for example, canvassing and talking to people in working-class neighborhoods, trying to get them on board with a degrowth political platform. How do degrowth proponents think workers in oppressed neighborhoods respond if they were told they needed to consume less to fight climate change? Many of us already wait as long as possible in the winter to turn on our heat! As organizers, we would not get the time of day, and we wouldn’t even believe ourselves. Can you imagine organizing homeless and unemployed workers around a program of less consumption? Degrowth is an ideology fit for the privileged, and if they want to consume less, they should.

From the perspective of the practical class struggle, degrowth is particularly problematic. Degrowth has a rhetorical strategy problem. In an unequal country such as the U.S., is the discourse of less and “self-limitation” realistic and inspiring? Is this tactic energizing, does it speak to the needs of the exploited and oppressed, can it mobilize people into action?

Rather than limit everything, we actually need to grow certain sectors such as green infrastructures and technologies. Our class doesn’t need a political platform that calls on us to give up the little pleasures we might have–if any at all–for the sake of the environment. Our class needs a political platform that states clearly what the real problem is and how we can solve it to make life will better.

Degrowth takes a non-class approach towards consumption and production. It is true that some of the more privileged sectors of the working class, particularly in imperialist countries, consume excessively and wastefully. Degrowth, however, fails to account for the class that takes wasteful consumption to almost unimaginable levels and the system that produces these production and consumption patterns. An increasing portion of the labor of the working class is wasted on supporting the consumption habits of the numerically small capitalist class. No amount of preaching self-limiting morality is going to convince the capitalist class to consume less, expropriate less, or oppress less. Once we can get rid of the parasitic imperialists, then human needs and desires can be met through a planned economy led by the working class.

Thus, the solution to these multifaceted and compounding environmental crises is not “degrowth”, but rather, as Mandel formulates it, “controlled and planned growth:”

“Such growth would need to be in the service of clearly defined priorities that have nothing to do with the demands of private profit…rationally controlled by human beings… The choice for ‘zero growth’ is clearly an inhuman choice. Two-thirds of humanity still lives below the subsistence minimum. If growth is halted, it means that the underdeveloped countries are condemned to remain stuck in the swamp of poverty, constantly on the brink of famine…

“Planned growth means controlled growth, rationally controlled by human beings. This presupposes socialism: such growth cannot be achieved unless the ‘associated producers’ take control of production and use it for their own interests, instead of being slaves to ‘blind economic laws’ or ‘technological compulsion’” [17].

References

[1]“Accumulate, accumulate! That is Moses and the prophets! ‘Industry furnishes the material which saving accumulates.’ Therefore save, save, i.e., reconvert the greatest possible portion of surplus-value or surplus product into capital! Accumulation for the sake of accumulation, production for the sake of production: this was the formula in which classical economics expressed the historical mission of the bourgeoisie in the period of its domination.” Marx, Karl. (1867/1976).CapitalVol 1(New York: Penguin Books), 742.
[2] Hansen, Bue Rübner. (2021). “The kaleidoscope of Ccatastrophe: On the clarities and blind spots of Andreas Malm.”Viewpoint Magazine, April 14.Availablehere.
[3] Hickel, Jason. (2019). “Degrowth: A theory of radical abundance,”Real-World Economics Review87, no. 19: 54-68. “Throughput” is the flow of energy and materials through a system.
[4] Malthus, Thomas R. (1789/2007).An essay on the principle of population(New York: Dover).
[5]Marx,Capital, 784.
[6] Kallis, Giorgos. (2018).In defense of degrowth: Opinions and manifestos(UK: Uneven Earth Press), 22, 21.
[7] Ibid., 24.
[8] Kallis, Giorgos. (2019). “Capitalism, socialism, degrowth: A rejoinder.”Capitalism Nature Socialism30, no. 2: 189.
[9] Ibid., 194.
[10] See Phillips, Leigh. (2015).Austerity ecology & the collapse-porn addicts: A defense of growth, progress, industry and stuff(Washington: Zero Books).
[11] See Karl, Marx. 1993.Grundrisse: Foundations of the critique of political economy (rought draft), trans. M. Nicolaus (New York: Penguin), 90-98.
[12] Marx, Karl. (1991.)CapitalVol 3 (New York: Penguin), 180.
[13] Kallis,In defense of degrowth,21.
[14] The World Bank. (2021), “Employment in agriculture (% total employment) (model ILO estimate),” January 29. Availablehere.
[15] Huber, Matt. (2018). “Fossilized liberation: Energy, freedom, and the ‘development of the productive forces.’” InMaterialism and the critique of energy, ed. B.R. Bellamy and J. Diamanti (Chicago: MCM’ Press), 517.
[16] Mandel, Ernest. (2020). “Ernest Mandel on Marxism and ecology: ‘The dialectic of growth.’”Monthly Review, June 17. Availablehere.
[17] Ibid.

Economic and Social Crises Keep Deepening: 48 Points That Will Shape the Future

By Shawgi Tell

Not only have the policies of the rich at home and abroad not stopped economic and social decline, the rich are actually taking social irresponsibility to new levels and making things worse worldwide. They are unable and unwilling to solve serious problems plaguing humanity. Opening the path of progress to society is not on their agenda.

Connecting just a few dots in an intelligible way produces a clear picture of the destruction unfolding worldwide. It is no accident that more people are writing about a miserable dystopian future where people will have to develop new creative ways of defending the rights of all. The information below is especially timely given the cheap euphoria displayed recently by the short-sighted rich and their political and media representatives about the “solid” 850,000 jobs the U.S. economy “added” in June 2021.

1. Inflation is increasing rapidly at home and abroad and the dollar’s purchasing power is still falling.

2. Globally, supply chains affecting many sectors are not operating smoothly; many are worried about contrived and non-contrived disruptions lasting for months, even years.

3. Ransomware incidents and major cyberattacks are not diminishing.

4. Millions of U.S. workers are misclassified as contractors, which means that they do not have (generally weak) protections.

5.  Thousands of companies at home and abroad are “zombie companies”—i.e., they don’t make a profit after paying down their debts, they just live a dead life.

6. Student debt in the U.S. keeps soaring.

7. College tuition in the U.S. and elsewhere keeps climbing.

8. Marriage rates in the U.S. are at an all-time low.

9. Birthrates are declining globally.

10. The U.S. experiences a higher infant mortality rate and a higher prevalence of obesity compared with most OECD member countries.

11.  The number of Americans who have moved back in with family or friends over the past 18 months is extremely high.

12. Homelessness is high nationwide and increasing significantly in some major U.S. cities; crime is also up.

13. Various “reforms” in countless sectors in many countries are superficial, phony, and non-substantive.

14. Anxiety and depression remain widespread worldwide.

15. Anti-depressant use remains high.

16. Mass murders and killings have increased in recent years in the U.S.; so have social and civil unrest.

17. Everyone everywhere is skeptical of the mainstream media and struggling not to be confused, ambushed, and humiliated every hour.

18. Around the world hundreds of millions have joined the ranks of the poor over the past 18 months.

19. Globally, well over ten million business have disappeared permanently and thousands more will disappear in the next five years.

20.  Leading economic experts and officials have no real solutions for anything and people continually have low levels of trust in “experts” and government; the rich continue to operate with impunity.

21. There is more polarization, division, and anger in society.

22. Poverty and inequality keep growing worldwide; wealth concentration is staggering and unprecedented.

23. Digital addiction and attendant problems won’t stop increasing.

24. More U.S. college and university administrators, trustees, and leaders are abandoning the intellectual mission of colleges, restricting faculty voice, and turning college into Disney and fun.

25. Getting simple things done is taking longer and becoming more convoluted and frustrating, especially when dealing with retailers, companies, and various agencies.

26. Surveillance and police-state arrangements are multiplying rapidly and becoming more diverse and sophisticated at home and abroad.

27. The media blackout on thousands who continue to experience serious side effects from vaccines continues.

28. Newly-elected “progressive” politicians in the U.S. and elsewhere are proving to be as ineffective as the “old guard.”

29. Privatization and deregulation keep increasing and wreaking havoc worldwide.

30. Anglo-American imperialism thinks that constantly treating China and Russia as bogeymen will keep fooling the gullible and divert attention from deep problems in the Anglo-American world.

31. The unionization rate of American workers is at a historic low, which is bad for all workers in all sectors.

32. More than 130 million working Americans can live off their savings for six months or less before going broke.

33. Mergers and acquisitions continue apace in 2021, concentrating even more wealth in even fewer hands.

34. Central banks around the world keep printing phantom money while stock market bubbles grow larger.

35. The U.S labor force participation rate remains low.

36. The number of long-term unemployed (27 weeks or more) in the U.S. is still increasing.

37. Millions of Americans have started to lose their jobless benefits.

38. More than 40% of Black families and Latino families in the U.S. have no access to an employer-sponsored retirement plan.

39. Black and Latino Americans are experiencing the biggest decline in life expectancy in decades.

40. In recent years, overall job quality for Americans has deteriorated significantly.

41. At least thirty million Americans lack access to high-speed internet.

42. The U.S. opioid overdose crisis, which pharmaceutical companies were recently found guilty of sponsoring, persists.

43. In Africa, nearly 40% of employed youth are considered poor.

44. Around the world, nearly one out of ten people experience hunger and the number of undernourished people has grown by millions in recent years.

45. The official unemployment rate exceeds 10% in at least 12 countries in (Western and Eastern) Europe. Fourteen countries fall into this category for North and South America. The real numbers are higher.

46. More than 27% of youth in Central Asia and Southern Asia are not in employment, training, or education.

47. In the past five years more countries have experienced violent conflict, while violent crime across the world has also increased.

48. Despite endless happy economic news in the mainstream media, economies around the world are far from recovering; many never recovered from the Great Recession of 2008 and mass vaccinations will not solve deep structural economic problems.

The list goes on and on. This is the tip of the iceberg. Numerous problems persist on all continents. The facts above do not paint a picture of a bright and promising future for humanity. Widespread destruction prevails in the obsolete neoliberal world.

But there are also openings and contradictions that people from all walks of life are being compelled to harness in order to advance the public interest and restrict the illegitimate control and authority of major owners of capital. The desire for real progress is palpable and growing; it emerges from the concrete conditions as they present themselves today. The international financial oligarchy cannot provide any solutions to the problems plaguing humanity today, they just have more catastrophes in store for everyone and are blocking the empowerment of the people. None of these serious problems can be solved, however, so long as the people remain marginalized and disempowered. A new direction, orientation, and public authority are urgently needed.

Humanity is entering a new and deeper crisis with qualitatively different and more dangerous features. Crisis is a turning point that contains both peril and opportunity. Crisis is not always just a negative thing; it means things cannot continue in the old way and something significant is going to have to eventually give. It usually takes a serious crisis or trauma to catalyze and propel much-needed change. In this way, crisis overcomes stagnation and complacency and sets the stage for something new. The negation of the negation operates with a greater vengeance in such defining moments, giving rise to a new synthesis, a new equilibrium, which gives rise to yet another dynamic which must assert itself sooner or later. The dialectic lives and cannot be extinguished. What comes next in the complicated here and now is unfolding consciously and spontaneously.

The pace and rate of change today is exhilarating and people’s desire to protect the social and natural environment is growing. The trial of strength between capital-centered forces and human-centered forces is bound to increase because conditions are demanding a new authority that affirms the rights of all. An alternative is necessary and possible. What this will look like is in the hands of the people themselves. Only they can be relied on to usher in a bright future for humanity free of privileged private interests wrecking the social and natural environment.

Shawgi Tell, PhD, is author of the book “Charter School Report Card.” His main research interests include charter schools, neoliberal education policy, privatization and political economy. He can be reached at stell5@naz.edu.

Kamala Harris and the New Imperialism

By Daniel Melo

In her recent trip to Guatemala, Vice President Kamala Harris spoke of seeking to end corruption, building trust in the region, and tackling the “root” causes of migration. But she also had a dire warning for would-be migrants—do not come to the US, you will be turned back. Never mind the fact that her remark flies in the face of international law protecting the right to seek asylum. This hard-line stance seems to be at odds with the present administration’s supposed compassionate view of migrants. In reality, it is the latest rendition of the long-standing hypocrisy within capitalism and its displacement of people, a tragically necessary result of US imperialism in Latin America.

US capitalist imperialism is central to the very conditions present in Central America today. In several texts on the issues of empire and migration, professor Greg Grandin details the US’s expansive exploitation, both in military and economic terms, throughout Latin America. This includes everything from direct military intervention, to strong-arming Latinx nations into destructive neo-liberal economic policies, to transplanting the very gangs that now hold criminal empires. This mode of imperialism actually supersedes the prior eras of colonialism. As Grandin argues in Empire’s Workshop, it replaced the old colonialism, as the latter could no longer handle the nationalistic tendencies of former colonies nor the nativist uproar they caused at home. Capitalism needed a new way of exploiting territory beyond itself, without the costly eventual repercussions of direct colonizing. Latin America became a “workshop” for the budding US empire, where it could flex both its military and economic might, a place for developing and honing the empire's machinery. Empire, says Grandin, became synonymous with the very idea of America. We are witnessing over a century’s worth of empire dire consequences--hundreds of thousands displaced, crumbling governments, and the rise of neo-facisim.

Of course, Harris has the benefit of time in masking the US’s own culpability in the displacement of people in Latin America. Time and short memory. Her comments received little contextualization in the greater arc of US relations with the Latinx world, which aids in veiling the empire’s direct role in lighting said world on fire. Recent comments by DHS secretary Majorkas echo this ignorance—“Poverty, high levels of violence, and corruption in Mexico and the Northern Triangle countries have propelled migration to our southwest border for years.  The adverse conditions have continued to deteriorate.  Two damaging hurricanes that hit Honduras and swept through the region made the living conditions there even worse, causing more children and families to flee.” Not only are these remarks devoid of any historical materialist context noted above, but significantly, drive home the reality that the US has fully absolved itself of any responsibility, moral or otherwise, from the human consequences of empire.

Thus, Harris' warning to the Guatemalan people is a continuation of the nature of the new imperialism and the hypocrisy at its heart—to do as it wishes without having to deal with the direct consequences. The contradiction is even clearer when paired with her other recent remarks about the border. When NBC’s Lester Holt questioned her choice not to visit the US-Mexico border as part of her trip, she responded that “my focus is dealing with the root causes of migration. There may be some who think that that is not important, but it is my firm belief that if we care about what’s happening at the border, we better care about the root causes and address them.” What she actually means by “caring” and “addressing”  is ensuring that the “problem” of thousands of displaced people simply be relocated to somewhere away from the US border. Of late, papering over the direct consequences of a century of US foreign policy in Latin America comes in two flavors--paying others to keep the problem at bay (“monetary aid”) or direct applications of force at the border (“you will be turned back”). In other words, the ravages of capitalist imperialism are best dealt with by ensuring that they never make their way to the US in the first place.

However, hostility toward the growing desperate multitudes will do little to deter people who are fleeing for their lives. As the Italian delegates at the Socialist Congress of 1907 long ago noted—“One cannot fight migrants, only the abuses which arise from emigration…we know that the whip of hunger that cracks behind migrants is stronger than any law made by governments.”  This administration, like the one before it (and so on for 100 years), assumes that brutality is a functional means of abating the ravages of capitalism. And while oppression may momentarily suppress the movement of people, it cannot fill stomachs, reverse climate change, or repair the decades of damage done by imperialism. As Grandin notes in The End of the Myth, the horrific and historic cycle of violence at the border is a product of the impossible task of policing the insurmountable gap between massive wealth accumulation and desperate poverty. Keeping people where they are will increasingly require escalations of violence and force to hold-off the human consequences of capitalist imperialism.

In this respect, Harris and the administration’s aim at tackling the “root causes” of migration will be forever out of their reach. To do so, they would first have to acknowledge the pivotal role that the US had and continues to have in creating such conditions, and in turn, the unsustainable nature of capitalism itself. This is ultimately no more likely than them suddenly conceding power to the workers of the world. Yet, Grandin also unveils a sliver of light in the darkness of imperialism--the lesson taught by the history of US involvement in Latin America is “[d]emocracy, social and economic justice, and political liberalization have never been achieved through an embrace of empire but rather through resistance to its command.”

Daniel Melo is a public sector immigration lawyer in the American Southeast who primarily works with refugees and the son of a migrant himself. His book, Borderlines, is due out from Zer0 Books in August 2021.

American Slavery and Global Capitalism

Pictured: Weighing cotton in Virginia, circa 1905 (Detroit Publishing Co. via Library of Congress)

By Edward Liger Smith

Edward Baptiste’s The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism attempts to provide a material analysis of the development of Slavery in the United States leading up to the Civil War. In doing so he reveals the origin of capitalism, and Western Economic Supremacy, to be the Southern Slave Plantations, who provided Northern and English Capitalists with an endless supply of cheap cotton, picked by the hands of slaves. As Eric Foner of the New York Times said in his review of the text in 2014 “American historians have produced remarkably few studies of capitalism in the United States” (Foner). Given the lack of analysis that has been done on the development of Capitalism in the United States, The Half Has Never Been Told, serves as an incredibly useful tool for American socialists who seek to understand the historical development of Western Capitalism, so that we may destroy it, and reconstruct a superior system.

Let us first quickly review Marx’s concept of Surplus Value, and his critique of Political Economy, in a manner that hopefully avoids putting the reader to sleep.

A common attack often levied at modern day economists, is that their field of study seems to have no place for historical analysis. To most Western Economists, capitalism’s laws are viewed as “natural.” The field has given very little thought to the historical development of capitalism, or the systems which predated it. In the 1800s, Karl Marx found this to be a major flaw in the works of Classical Economist David Ricardo. Marx argued in Capital Vol 1 “Ricardo never concerns himself with the origin of surplus-value. He treats it as an entity inherent in the capitalist mode of production, and in his eyes the latter is the natural form of social production” (Marx 651). Marx makes this critique of Ricardo, after he himself first laid out a lengthy history of the development of capitalism in Europe, which took place over hundreds of years. Marx’s analysis of production shows us that surplus value, or excess value beyond what society needs for survival, is not present in all modes of human production historically, nor is it exclusive to the capitalist mode of production. Marx draws our attention to the Egyptians, who’s advanced agricultural infrastructure allowed their society to produce what was needed to survive, while using their leftover time to construct giant pyramids in honor of the Egyptian monarchs. The pyramids themselves would be considered “surplus value”, however, they do NOT constitute the specifically capitalist form of surplus value. This is because the Pyramids were produced to show the power of monarchical rulers, and not to make money for a capitalist through their sale on a market. The domination of Private Property owners and giant global commodity markets would take years of development before coming about. Only after years of struggle between classes would capitalists finally wrench the means of production from the hands of monarchical rulers. These specific historical developments led to a change in how Surplus Value is produced. Now, rather than producing what is needed to maintain society, before using any extra time to construct surplus commodities for the monarchy, Surplus Value is produced through capitalists hiring workers, who then add value to a commodity, before selling that commodity on a market, at a price above it’s actual value. Under this capitalist mode of production, the creations of the working class, beyond what is needed for the survival of society, becomes the property of the capitalist class. This excess property appropriated by Capital is Surplus Value within a capitalist mode of production.

In his studies, Marx also found that the capitalist mode of production develops uniquely to every country and geographic location. In Capital, he often jumps around the world to look at the development of capitalism globally, but primarily narrows his analysis to the development of capitalist production in Europe. Here, Marx observed the rapid development of privately owned textile factories. An analysis of the productive output of these factories showed they had been producing commodities at an ever-increasing rate. This output of commodities was maintained and constantly increased by throwing young girls into the factories en masse. If girls died of overwork or succumbed to diseases contracted in the horrid factory conditions, capitalists looked to the newly created mass of unemployed workers to hire a replacement. Additionally, the machinery of production was constantly being improved. Factory owners were now competing with one another to sell the maximum number of products possible. The winners of this newly emergent capitalist competition were those who could produce the most while paying their workers the least. Capitalism becomes a race to produce surplus value, with no regard for the effects it has on the class of workers.

During the time of capitalism's original development, the textile capitalist’s most important raw material was cotton. Thankfully for these European capitalists, they would find an abundant source of cotton at ever affordable prices directly across the Atlantic Ocean.

Edward Baptiste’s The half has Never Been Told may as well be a contribution to Marxist theory for those of us living here in the US, the world’s capitalist stronghold. Upon its release, Baptiste’s book was lambasted by those who Marx would have referred to as ‘bourgeois economists.’ One article from The Economist was removed after the Publication received backlash over their critique that “Almost all the blacks in his book are victims, almost all the white’s villains” (The Economist). Perhaps economists in the United States have not yet been made aware that the capitalist mode of production they claim to study so closely developed slowly out of a system of chattel slavery, which specifically targeted those with black skin. However, someone should make these folks aware that throughout the 19th-century, capitalists in the Northern United States, Europe, and anywhere else the capitalist mode of production had taken hold, were profiting greatly from cotton picked by black slaves in the southern United States. Despite what our modern-day economists would have you believe, black people were in fact victimized by white owners of capital. These white landowners did all they could to commodify the black body in order to create for themselves an endless source of labour power. This labour could theoretically provide capital with an endless source of surplus value, so long as that labor could be combined with land, which of course was quickly being acquired through the genocide and forced removal of native populations.

Painstakingly conducted research from Baptiste and others reveals Southern Slavery to be its own specific mode of production. So, while Southern Slavery had unique elements which made it distinguishable from Capitalism, they also shared many of the same features. Therefore, the class of Southern slave owners did not have the same motivations as the previously mentioned ruling class of Egypt, who also produced goods under relations of slavery. Instead, plantation owners in the south were subjected to the same market forces as their capitalist counterparts in Europe. Slave owners produced incredible amounts of surplus value through selling their cotton on a world market which provided endless demand for their commodity. Unlike Egyptian enslavers, the surplus value of southern plantation owners did not come in the form of giant stone creations, or sculptures to the gods. The surplus value appropriated by enslavers instead came in the form of money. Much of which was then reinvested in expanding production through purchasing more slaves, plantations, and land. This money used to make more money is what Marx labeled as ‘Capital.’

The endeavors of these Southern enslaver capitalists were heavily financed by banks in Europe and the Northern United States. These financial institutions simultaneously bank rolled massive campaigns of forced removal or genocide of Native peoples, aimed at divorcing them from the land and allowing market-based production to expand. The Native people’s own unique Mode of production had to be destroyed in order to make room for the production of capitalist’s surplus value. The enslavers of the United States essentially functioned as capitalists, subject to the same market forces as the factory owners who Marx studied in Europe. However, plantation owners held a unique economic power that would come to be enforced by the state. This power was the legal ‘right’ not just to commodify human labour power, but the source of that labour power. Human Beings. Through the legal commodification of human beings with black skin, Southern Enslavers used the labor of black bodies to produce obscene quantities of cotton. The sale of these commodities on the Global Market allowed plantation owners to accumulate massive hoards of wealth, and continue their expansion by endlessly investing capital. The brutality of these enslavers was either ignored or justified by capitalists around the globe who saw the South as an endless source of cheap cotton.

Black slaves existed under relations of slavery, while also being subjected to market forces that are usually associated with capitalism. These specific economic conditions incentivized white plantation owners to subject those who toiled in their fields to some of the most horrific crimes in human history. Similar to European capitalists who were consistently working children to death in order to maximize output, Southern slave owners sought any methods possible to increase the quantity of cotton they could produce. Because slave owners had legally enforced ownership of the physical bodies in their labor force, torture became the primary method used to force slaves into increasing the speed of cotton production. Baptiste draws on an analogy from former Politician, and fierce ideological advocate of slavery Henry Clay, who describes a “whipping machine” used to torture enslaved people and make them work faster. Baptiste explains it is unlikely the whipping machine was a real device that existed in the Southern United States.  He instead argues that the machine is a metaphor for the use of torture which was the primary technology used by enslavers to increase their production of cotton. While technological innovations such as the cotton gin allowed for an increase in the amount of cotton which could be separated and worked into commodities, far less technology was developed to aid in the process of actually picking the cotton. Therefore, in order for slave owning capitalists to increase the speed of cotton picking on their plantations, the use of torture was systematized and ramped up to an unimaginable degree. Torture was to the slave owner, what developments in machine production were to the factory owner: a tactic for continually increasing the Rate of Exploitation, or the quantity of commodities produced by a given number of workers, in order to produce an increased number of goods for sale on a market, which brings the capitalist his surplus value.

There are many ways in which capitalists can increase their rate of exploitation. The specific function of the whipping machine was to increase what Marx called the ‘intensity of labour,’ i.e., an increase in the expenditure of labour and quantity of commodities created by the workers within a given time period. For example, a slave owner hitting a field worker with a whip until the worker picks double the cotton. This would be an increase in the intensity of labour. There are many ways for capitalists to increase the rate of exploitation without increasing intensity of labour. Two common techniques used by non-slave owning capitalists at the time were increasing the productivity of their machinery and increasing the length of the working day. As was discussed previously, very few technological innovations were created in the realm of cotton harvesting during the time of Southern Slavery. Additionally, the Slave Owners already had free reign to work their labour as long as they pleased, and an extension of the working day would serve them no purpose. Slave owning capitalists had a choice to either give up their pursuit of surplus value or use torture on a mass scale to increase the speed at which their workers produced. Of course, the capitalists chose torture, and the market rewarded those capitalists who refined their torture techniques the furthest. Market competition compelled most all Southern capitalists to adopt torture as an incentive of production or be pushed out of business by those who did. The innovation of the market at work!

Slavery would only die in the United States after a long and protracted struggle between opposing classes culminating in the Civil War. Baptiste details this struggle in his book and in the process refutes the utopian historical myth that the labor of slaves was simply less efficient than wage-laborers, which is what led to the implementation of capitalism. Baptiste instead shows how Northern Capitalists came into a political conflict with the Southern Enslavers. Northerners began challenging the southern capitalist’s unique ‘right’ to own human beings. By the Civil War plantation owners had long been expanding into Mexico while continuing to steal land from Native Americans. Now running low on conquerable land, the enslavers sought to expand their control to various US colonies, or even extend slavery into the Northern US. This brought Southern Slave Capital into a direct conflict with Northern Capital.

By 1860 The North had developed a diversified industrial economy, albeit with the help of cotton picked by slaves. The South on the other hand had seen moderate industrial development, but mostly served as a giant cotton colony for the rest of the world’s capitalists. This limited diversification in the cotton dependent Southern economy and left them slightly less prepared for war. This, among other factors, allowed the Union to win the Civil War replacing slave relations with capitalist ones. Additionally, the Slaves and many workers who hated the Southern Plantation Oligarchy would take up arms and join the Union Army. We see in the civil war the intensification of struggles between classes, which reached its climax in armed conflict between the warring classes.  Whether he’s done so intentionally or not, Edward Baptiste’s history of slavery has provided great evidence for Karl Marx’s theory that struggles between classes are what drive history through various modes of production.

For those of us living in the United States who wish to wage a struggle against our current mode of production, the history of Southern slavery is necessary to understand. Marx conducted his historical analysis of the development of Capitalism in England with the explicit goal of helping workers to understand their current situation and how to change it. Similarly to Marx, American socialists have the imperative to understand the historical development of our own capitalist mode of production. A history that shows without question that the propertied class in this country has consistently used race as a tool for maximizing their own surplus value. The commodification of a specific race being the ultimate form of this. Today, capital seeks to sow racial divisions among the diverse mass of working people. This is done to distract the labourers of society from the forces of markets, our relations of production, and designed to maximize our exploitation for the enrichment of a small number of people who do not work, the capitalists. The union army destroyed the uniquely evil mutation of capitalist production that was southern slavery. Let us continue this struggle today by attacking capitalist production at its roots, and take power from the class who exploits us, and the markets which throw our lives into anarchy.

Edward Liger Smith is an American Political Scientist and specialist in anti-imperialist and socialist projects, especially Venezuela and China. He also has research interests in the role southern slavery played in the development of American and European capitalism. He is a co-founder and editor of Midwestern Marx and the Journal of American Socialist Studies. He is currently a graduate student, assistant, and wrestling coach at the University of Wisconsin-Platteville.

Bibliography

The Economist. “Our withdrawn review "Blood Cotton."” The Economist, 5 September 2014, https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2014/09/05/our-withdrawn-review-blood-cotton. Accessed 29 06 2021.

Foner, Eric. A Brutal Process. New York Times, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/books/review/the-half-has-never-been-told-by-edward-e-baptist.html. Accessed 02 07 2021.

Marx, Karl. Capital Volume I. Penguin Classics, 1976. 3 vols.

Imperial Roots of the Global Food System: A Review of Chris Otter's 'Diet For A Large Planet'

By Amy Leather

Republished from Climate & Capitalism.

Why do we eat what we do? This is the question Chris Otter seeks to answer in Diet for a Large Planet. It is very timely. In recent years there has been growing anger and horror at a food system that delivers both unhealthy and environmentally destructive diets. Food has become deeply politicized.

In 2019 the medical journal The Lancet published what it called a “planetary health diet.” Their conclusion was that “the world’s diets must change dramatically” to save the planet and ourselves. They argued that a Great Food Transformation is required — a move away from what is often called the Western Diet, high in red meat, refined grains, saturated fat and sugar, to a more plant based diet.

This is not in fact a new argument. Otter’s title deliberately echoes Diet for a Small Planet, first published 50 years ago, in which Frances Moore Lappe blamed a diet rich in meat and refined carbohydrates for environmental and health problems.

But when looking at today’s food systems most commentators tend to focus on the post war period, and in particular the role of the US in driving a model of industrialized food production and agriculture. This is a model epitomized by the ascendancy of processed foods, the growth of the fast food giants and supermarkets, and the scale and dominance of agribusiness.

However, Otter argues that “in order to understand the deeper history of today’s global food situation, it is necessary to explore post-1800 Britain.” He argues that “Britain laid the foundations for contemporary food systems. It was the nineteenth century’s dominant world power, controlling immense global resources, and creating long distance food chains to supply vast quantities of meat, wheat and sugar.” This is a good starting point. Locating our current food systems in a wider political and historical context, very much bound up with the development of capitalism and colonialism.

What stands out in the book is just how early the internationalization of food production developed for Britain. Britain was sourcing foods from round the globe in vast quantities from the mid 1800s, importing grain, meat and dairy products.

Otter shows this with a vast array of statistics. He outlines how “the volume of British food imports rose almost eightfold between 1850-52 and 1910-12, by which time they represented around two fifths of all British imports by value. Over four fifths of bread consumed in Britain came from imported grain by 1909.”

Initially Ireland had contributed much of Britain’s imports of grain, meat, butter and livestock but Britain soon became the world’s richest single consumer market for food and raw materials. In 1860 Britain received 49% of total Asian, African, and Latin American food exports. In 1930 with just under 3% of the world’s population Britain imported 99% of world’s exports of ham and bacon, 63% of its butter, 62% of its eggs, 59% of its beef, 46% of cheese, and 28% of its wheat and wheat flour.

Otter looks in detail at how Britain came to import so much meat, grain and sugar. For example, during the 1800s farmers in Britain had experimented with selective breeding to produce the cows and other animals ideal for meat production, such as short horn cows and Herefords. It soon became more profitable to ship these types of livestock out to new areas of the globe, such as the United States and Argentina, to be bred and reared on their huge pastures and their meat imported back to Britain.

Such outsourcing, as Otter calls it, meant a vast infrastructure was built in these areas. As he outlines “there were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s. This heavily capitalized industry with its vast ranches and industrialized meat packing, operated on a much larger scale than Britain’s.” It’s not hard to see how this paved the way for the great acceleration of meat production after 1945 in the US.

There was a massive increase in the amount of wheat bread consumed in Britain between 1771-1879, and by 1911 wheat bread provided around half the working class calorie intake.

Otter outlines how Britain had been self-sufficient in wheat until about 1850. However, at that point wheat production started to become unprofitable and so grain began to be drawn from different and shifting areas of the globe, including Australia, India, Argentina and North America. By 1909 over 80% of British bread was made with imported grain.

Alongside meat and bread, sugar also became central to the British diet. In a short period of time it went from being a luxury to an essential. Otter makes the point that it became a cheap “fuel food” for the working class in Britain. By the late eighteenth century Britain consumed nearly half of all the sugar reaching Europe, and British consumption levels were over ten times higher than those in the rest of Europe. In 1750, the average Britain received 72 calories daily from sugar, by 1909-13 this figure was 395. Sugar still provides 12-15% of Britain’s calories.

Such cheap calories were a consequence of colonialism and slavery. Portuguese, Spanish, French and British colonial systems created a sugar industry linking Europe to the Caribbean and parts of South America. For Britain Barbados became particularly lucrative, with sugar becoming the island’s most important export by 1650. Jamaica was colonized from 1664, and by 1805, it was the world’s largest sugar exporter. By the 1830s Britain was using some two million overseas acres for sugar production.

Alongside exploring the internationalization of food production, Otter also shows how mass production techniques and food processing are not just a postwar invention. For example, the mass production of bread began in the 1870s. Traditional milling methods in Hungary and the US were replaced by roller milling and then introduced into Britain. It is fascinating to note that factory made American cheese was already cheaper than British cheddar in the 1860s — and arrived in Britain in increasing quantities. Mass production techniques meant that Britain was producing some 300,000 tons of biscuits by 1939 while sweets we know today such as fruit pastilles and fruit gums have been industrially produced since the late 1800s.

However, Otter seems to argue that this internationalization of food production or outsourcing was a consequence of what he terms a “large planet philosophy.” He defines this as “the premise that the entire earth was a potential source of material wealth and capital investments.”

The implication throughout the book is that the idea of sourcing food from across the globe was the driving force behind the developments rather than the dynamics of capitalism. Here the book is at its weakest. While Otter references Marxism in his introduction as a framework he will draw on, there is virtually no discussion of how the development of capitalism turned food into a commodity. There is nothing about how the competitive accumulation and the drive for profit at the heart of capitalism impacted on food production, including its expansion across the globe.

As Martin Empson points out in Land and Labour, “Marx understood how the development of industrial capitalism in one part of the world had the effect of shaping the agricultural economies of the rest of the world.”

In Capital, Marx writes that, “large scale industry, in all countries where it has taken root, spurs on rapid increases in emigration and the colonization of foreign lands, which are thereby converted into settlements for growing raw material of the mother country…. A new and international division of labour springs up, one suited to the requirements of the main industrial countries, and it converts one part of the globe into a chiefly agricultural field of production for supplying the other part, which remains a pre-eminently industrial field.”

Diet for a Large Planet often reads almost as a summary of political thought and as though food production was shaped by a battle of ideas. Of course there were competing ideas, for example over free trade, a requirement that underpinned cheap food imports. But these reflected real class interests, as well as divisions within the ruling class themselves. The battle over the Corn Laws of 1815 exemplified this — with the established landowning class wanting to keep grain prices high while the rising class of industrialist capitalists wanted cheaper grain, so they could pay their workers less.

Without such a framework of understanding the dynamic of capitalism, the drive for profit at the heart of it and how different class forces asserted themselves, the central arguments the book seeks to make are weakened.

While Otter makes some interesting points about food, power and racism, he downplays the centrality of slavery to the development of capitalism. And although he explores the Irish and Bengal famines he doesn’t emphasize the fact that food was exported from these countries during those famines.

The book contains a wealth of detail and a vast array of facts and figures, covering everything from imports to the size of working class kitchens, from animal slaughter techniques to historical records of calorific intake and tooth decay, from the working of grain elevators to the specifics of the sugar extraction process and beet production, and much more. This makes the book a useful resource, but at times I felt that the detail drowned out the big picture and obscured explanation and analysis.

Overall, Diet for a Large Planet is a useful, and at times thought provoking, contribution to the discussion of food systems, but I finished it with unanswered questions.

Decolonization and Communism

By Nodrada

Republished from Orinoco Tribune.

“We have to give life to Indo-American socialism with our own reality, in our own language. Here is a mission worthy of a new generation.”

-José Carlos Mariátegui, “Anniversary and Balance,” José Carlos Mariátegui: An Anthology¹

While the turn towards analyzing ongoing settler-colonialism has finally reached the mainstream of North American political discussions, there is still a lack of popular understanding of the issues involved. Settler-colonialism is, ironically, understood within the framework of the ways of thinking brought by the European ruling classes to the Americas. By extension, the conceptions of decolonization are similarly limited. Although the transition from analyzing psychological or “discursive” decolonization to analyzing literal, concrete colonization has been extremely important, it requires some clarifications.

Settler–colonialism is a form of colonialism distinct from franchise colonialism. The colonizers seek primarily to eliminate the indigenous population rather than exploit them, as in the latter form of colonialism. Decolonization is the struggle to abolish colonial conditions, though approaches to it may vary. Societies formed on a settler-colonial basis include the United States, Canada, Israel, New Zealand, and Australia. For our purposes, we will focus on the United States in analyzing local ideas of settler-colonialism and decolonization.

Among North American radicals, there are two frequent errors in approaching decolonization.

On the one hand, there are the opponents of decolonization who argue that settler-colonialism no longer exists. In their view, to identify specific concerns for Indigenous peoples and to identify the ongoing presence of settler-colonial social positions is divisive and stuck in the past. They believe that settlers no longer exist, and Euro-Americans have fully become indigenous to North America through a few centuries of residency.

On the other hand, there are proponents of decolonization who believe that Euro-Americans are eternally damned as settlers, and cannot be involved in any radical change whatsoever. The most extreme of these argue for the exclusion of Euro-Americans from radical politics entirely.

Settler-colonialism is not over, contrary to the first view. Rather, Indigenous peoples still struggle for their rights to sovereignty within and outside reservations, especially ecological-spiritual rights. Their ostensibly legally recognized rights are not respected, either. The examples of the struggles of the Wet’suwet’en, Standing Rock Lakota, Mi’kmaq, and other peoples in recent memory are testimony to this. Indigenous peoples are still here, and they are still fighting to thrive as Indigenous peoples. Capitalists drive to exploit the earth, destroying ecology and throwing society into what John Bellamy Foster calls a metabolic rift.² This means that the demands of capital for expansion are incompatible with the ‘rhythm’ of ecology, destroying concrete life for abstract aims as a result.

An atomistic, individualist worldview is what undergirds the view of settler-colonialism as over and of contemporary Euro-Americans as being just as indigenous as Indigenous peoples. When settler-colonialism is seen as an individual responsibility or guilt, we are left with a very crude concept of it.

The denialists of settler-colonialism assume that it must be over, because the colonization of the Americas is apparently over. Thus, they think that modern Euro-Americans cannot be blamed for the sins of their forefathers, since individuals shouldn’t be held responsible for things which happened outside of their lifetimes. Guilt in this conception is an assessment of whether an atomistic individual is responsible for extremely specific crimes, such as participating in something like the Paxton Boys’ ethnic cleansing campaign in 1763 Pennsylvania.

The same ideological approach characterizes the other side, which obsesses over the individual status of “settler” and micro-categorizing the contemporary residents of North America within an abstract concept of settler-colonialism. They argue that having the individual status of “settler” means one is eternally damned, one is marked as a specific person by the crimes of a social system always and forever. This hefty sentence has high stakes, thus the obsession with categorizing every unique case within a specific box.

Neither of these approaches offers a successful insight into settler-colonialism. Instead, they project the thinking of European bourgeois liberalism. The individual is defined in an atomistic way, in their characteristics, rights, crimes, and so on. The individual as a node on a web of social relations is totally out of the question here. Yet, that is how we must think if we wish to understand settler-colonialism and, therefore, abolish it.

To focus primarily on categorizing atomistic individuals, instead of focusing on social relations, loses sight of the true engine of settler-colonialism. It is not that individuals choose one day to behave brutally, or that it is simply the nature of a specific people. Instead, it has very concrete historical motivations in the global system and the rise of settler-colonialism within it. For example, North American settler-colonialism was motivated significantly by the land hunger of capitalists who grew cash crops like tobacco and cotton, which were sold on the world market. Thinking in broad, structural terms is important in order to avoid reductive analyses and approaches.

While the side which focuses on damning individual Euro-Americans certainly have land in mind while thinking about this subject, they have a static and simple concept of land. In their minds, settlers are settlers because they are present in a certain place, to which a specific Indigenous group has an abstract, moral right to exclusive habitation in. To put it simply, their thought process is “if X person is in Y place, which belongs to Z people, then they are a settler.”

They do not understand the social relation of Indigenous peoples to their homelands, which extends into the aspects of ecology, history, spirituality, etc. That is, Indigeneity as itself a social relation. Indigenous peoples explicitly refer to their nations and homelands as relations. Their relation to land is not to land as an abstract thing, but to specific spaces that are inseparable from their specific communal lives.

In the context of describing his people’s history, Nick Estes (Lower Brulé Lakota) said in Our History is the Future:

“Next to the maintenance of good relations within the nation, an individual’s second duty was the protection of communal territory. In the east, the vast wild rice patties and seasonal farms that grew corn, beans, and squash demarcated Dakota territory. In the west, Lakota territory extended as far as the buffalo herds that traveled in the fertile Powder River country. For Dakotas, Lakotas, and Nakotas, territory was defined as any place where they cultivated relations with plant and animal life; this often overlaid, and was sometimes in conflict, with other Indigenous nations.”³

Identity and mode of life in communalist societies is specific to spaces, because keeping in the ‘rhythm’ of these spaces is a basic guiding logic of life. Because land is a relative, there was and is significant resistance among Indigenous peoples to the settler seizure of land and commodification of their non-human relative. The European bourgeoisie, meanwhile, was more concerned with what value could be extracted from the land, their worldview being based in abstract concepts of Right, Justice, Liberty and so on.

The faction in question does not understand settler-colonists as part of social relations which seek to negate that communal land social relation for concrete aims. They lack broad perspective, they only see society as a collection of atoms, falling into micro-categories, bundled together.

Having critiqued these two views, we can now give a better idea of how to properly approach the category groupings involved in analysis of settler-colonialism.

Indigeneity is defined by continuity of long-standing communal relations and identities indigenous to a certain region. Relation to a specific homeland or region is important to this, but the loss of direct ties to land does not necessarily negate Indigeneity. Rather, the continuity of belonging to a certain ‘mode of life’ and community is key.

A settler is one who is outside of these relations, and plays an active role in the negation of these Indigenous relations. A settler is not merely a settler because they are foreign. Rather, they are a settler because of this active negating role.

To play an active negating role does not necessarily mean one personally enforces colonial laws. Instead, it means that one directly benefits from their participation in the destruction of these relations, such as by gaining residencies or employment at the expense of those land-relations. An important aspect of being a settler is being a socio-political citizen of a settler-colonial society. This means that, in law and in social practice, one has the full rights of belonging to the settler-colonial nation, and is recognized as such in ideology.

Many analysts of settler-colonialism, such as Jodi Byrd (Chickasaw), use a third category in their analysis: arrivants.⁴ Arrivants are those who are part of social structures which dissolve those land-relations, but lack the citizenship and agency of settlers. An example of this would be Filipino debt peons. They cannot fully belong to the settler structures, in practice or in ideology, but they are still part of those structures. In North American history, these groups have at various times been explicitly excluded from the potential to own property or obtain full legal citizenship. Said citizenship was directly defined around whiteness, first de jure, and later de facto.

These categories should be treated in a nuanced way, as tools to understand a concrete society and history. We should avoid trying to bend reality to fit abstract categories. Otherwise, one assumes these categories are destiny. One assumes that Indigenous peoples cannot be part of settler-colonial structures, or that all settlers are eternally damned and cannot overcome their social role.

In history, there are many examples of Indigenous peoples participating in settler-colonial processes, such as with Tohono O’odham warriors participating in the Camp Grant Massacre against Apaches, or the Indigenous Vice President Charles Curtis sponsoring assimilation and allotment of communal lands. There are also examples of people without full socio-political citizenship participating in these processes, such as with Black Buffalo Soldiers fighting on the front lines of Manifest Destiny.

There are also examples of Euro-Americans defecting to Indigenous societies in order to escape bourgeois “civilization.” Cynthia Ann Parker was abducted and adopted as a child by a Comanche war band. Texas Rangers, who had massacred her adopted relatives, had to force her to return to Euro-American society. While adopted Euro-Americans remained Euro-Americans, inclusion in those communal relations transformed them. Instead of playing a negating influence on the part of bourgeois society, they became participants in Indigenous relations. To be a settler is not destiny, but is a status which can be negated through a revolutionary transformation of society. In a word, through decolonization.

To obsess over policing micro-categories is not helpful for understanding or fighting settler-colonialism. Being conscious of it is important, but the key is to focus on broad social structures. The way we alter individuals is by altering social relations, and the way we fight for Indigenous sovereignty is by abolishing the negating forces in society. To successfully treat a disease, one must keep in mind the body as a system rather than a simple collection of parts. The same applies to society.

Settler-colonialism in North America is the conflict of two social forms, one fighting to negate the other. The capitalist system: private, individualist, focused on expanding an abstract ‘god’ (capital). The Indigenous communal modes of life: premised on relationality, collectivist, focused on viewing the individual as a part of a whole.

The bourgeoisie seek exclusive, private ownership of land as property to be bought and sold as a commodity. They do not recognize communal land rights, or anything like having a social relation with a place. Instead, they seek to cut off the nerves connecting every aspect of communal life in order to box things in as commodities, so that they can be abstracted into an exchange-value.

The 1887 Dawes Act, which dissolved Indigenous communal landholdings in the United States, was aimed at forcing this system on Indigenous peoples.⁵ In the eyes of the ruling class, this was simply “civilization.” The bourgeoisie had to go to war with these communal ways of life to construct a capitalist system in its place. In the communal systems, unlike capitalism: land itself has rights as a relative instead of being merely a vehicle for value, people live off the land as a community instead of being landless wage-laborers, and exploitation is heavily frowned upon.

The first Red Scare in the United States was not during the 1919–1920 assault on organized labor and anti-war activists, but during the struggle of the government and capitalists against Indigenous communal modes of life.⁶

This war of generalized commodity production, capitalism, against alternative ways of being extended to ways of knowing. When forcing Indigenous children into boarding schools, the colonizers worked hard to destroy languages, religious practices, and cultural practices.⁷ In their place, they promoted individualism, bourgeois values, and a future as wage-laborers.

The liberal view of individuals is quite representative of typical bourgeois thinking. Liberalism posits individuals in an atomistic way, without considering them as concrete beings with concrete relationships in a real world. It sees individuals as simply bundles of rights, obligations, and so on. It premises meaning on extremely abstract, albeit universalizing concepts, such as “justice.” The rights of the liberal citizen are rights they have apart from society. Their freedom is a space separate from society, since they see others as fundamentally competitors.

This abstract thinking, individualism, and competitive view makes plenty of sense for a bourgeois. Their well-off conditions and obsession with preserving their private property against others reflect in their lack of concern for positive rights (rights to things, like food or shelter). What they want is to realize their capital, defeat their competitors, and pay as little as they have to for the working class’s living.

They only concern themselves with concrete things as far as they relate to their mission to realize abstract, congealed labor: capital. Capital commands them. If they do not expand their capital through exploitation and investment, they fall behind and decay in the rat race. Thus, the bourgeois is shrewd, atomistic, and anti-social.

By contrast, the communal view of individuals which is characteristic of Indigenous nations is focused on very concrete things. Individuals are part of specific communities with specific histories, who are relatives with specific land-spaces. To preserve balance in one’s real relations is an important value, contrasting sharply to the obsession with satisfying the god of abstract capital by feeding it concrete sacrifices. The key to this worldview is keeping in the ‘rhythm’ of life: the rhythm of one’s human relatives, non-human relatives, the ecology, the spirits, etc.

The latter view has a sibling in the views of Karl Marx. In the sixth thesis from Theses On Feuerbach, Marx said:

[…]the essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations.⁸

Further, Marx was very concerned with the metabolic rift wrought by capitalism. In his view, while capitalism had for the first time linked up the whole world and all people into one global social system of production, it had also unleashed forces it could not control. While everyone in capitalism depends on everyone else, the system is controlled by self-interested bourgeoisie, who have no concern for humans, animals, or ecology.

Therefore, there is a need for a working class revolution, where the people who produce what the world runs on establish social control of this social production. Through that social control, they must restore the balance of humanity and nature, using the planning of production to end the chaos and blindness characteristic of capital. Once they have fully developed this system of social control and planning and brought about a world where all people contribute to the social product instead of anyone exploiting anyone else, they will have established a communist society.

The basis for Pan-Indigenism in North America was laid by the proletarianization of Indigenous peoples during and after World War II.⁹ The Federal government explicitly hoped to use this to assimilate Indigenous peoples by removing them from communal life on reservations. Instead, the contact of many distinct peoples in urban workforces and communities led to the development of a new, broad concept of Indigeneity. These proletarians thought of themselves not only as, for example, Standing Rock Lakota or Chiricahua Apache, but also as “Indigenous.”

This had precedence with people such as Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee leaders of a Pan-Indigenous resistance to settler-colonialism in late 18th and early 19th century Ohio, or Wovoka, the Paiute founder of the Ghost Dance movement in the late 19th century. However, it had never reached this scale before. The same forces which sought to destroy Indigenous identity created means of establishing a new political movement in defense of it.

This universalization of identity from particular to general, without necessarily negating the particular, is something which must be done by social revolution as well. Proletarianization unites many distinct peoples into one class, leading to radical contacts between worlds. It lays the basis for a revolution which for the first time establishes a real community of all of humanity.

Decolonization ties directly into this project of social revolution. Capital attacks communal relations to establish and reproduce itself, yet by doing this it lays the foundation for a more universal form of communal life: communism. To decolonize is not to merely undo history and return to the past. We cannot undo centuries of change, of destruction.

Instead, as advocated by anti-colonial theorists like Aimé Césaire and Frantz Fanon, we must assert indigenous aims on the basis of the world colonialism has brought. This must take the form of the social revolution, because capital leaves intact the negating force against communalism and the relations of domination between groups of people.

In our theorizing of communism, we must avoid the thought patterns of the bourgeoisie. We must not only avoid individualism, but avoid the denigration of communalist ways of life. Indigenous peoples are at the forefront of the defense of bio-diversity. They are staunch protectors of the earth, of their ways of life and of their relation with the earth. They resist capitalist primitive accumulation, defending their sovereignty, daily. Communism cannot be some form of universalized bourgeois society, nor can it carry over the denigrated view the bourgeoisie have of life. Instead, it must be communalism reasserted on a universal scale.

Decolonization does not mean one throws out settlers. It does not mean we send Euro-Americans back to Europe. This belief is premised on a bourgeois, colonial thinking about life. It assumes that behavior is ahistoric, inscribed into the DNA of people. Rather, it is social relations that we must expel, transforming people through incorporation into new ones.

In the past, the adoption of Euro-Americans served as an alternative to their behavior as settlers. A decolonized society can follow this model on a broader scale, while preserving the sovereignty of Indigenous peoples over their homelands. Indigenous conceptions of land are not based on bourgeois exclusive right, but the right of specific people to have an ongoing relation with specific spaces. Abolishing the negating force, capitalism, and asserting these ways of life while working to establish the universalist form, communism, must be our program.

To put it simply, decolonization should be understood as the indigenization of settlers. This necessitates a social revolution in all aspects of life. It does not mean settlers must immediately “play Native.” Within the context of bourgeois settler-colonialism, that is part of a process of dissolving Indigenous communities, destroying their ability to remain sovereign. Rather, it means that we must destroy the capitalist society which drives these antagonisms.

This decolonization also necessitates a conscious revolution in ideology as part and parcel of social transformation. As discussed, communalist societies have a strong sense of concrete locality, of specificity according to a space and the relations of that space. Capitalism seeks to negate that in favor of universalist abstractions. Communism must take the universalizing capitalism has engaged in and place it on a concrete, conscious basis.

We ought to oppose the negation of local life capitalism engages in, while having the universal goal of revolution. That is, unite the particular with the universal, establish the particular as the basis of the universal. The old, European bourgeois ways of thinking, lacking metabolism or relationality with other humans and with ecology, must be overcome.

Communism is the abolition of the present state of things on the basis of existing premises. The emancipatory project of communism should not be hostile to, but a student of Indigenous peoples. When all people are one kin, when they are not divided by class or other social antagonisms, then we will all be free. That is the relation of decolonization to communism.

Rock-A-Bye Baby: On the State's Legitimation of Juneteenth and Liberal Concessions as Political Anesthetization In Slavery's Afterlives

(AP Photo/J. Scott Applewhite)

By Joshua Briond

“Everything has changed on the surface and nothing else has been touched[...] In a way, the state is more powerful than ever, because it has given us so many tokens.”

—James Baldwin

On Thursday, June 17th, President Joe Biden signed a bill establishing June 19 as Juneteenth National Independence Day, a US federal holiday commemorating the end of slavery in the United States. According to CNN, the holiday will become the first federal law holiday established since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was signed into law in 1983. Ultimately, the bill will allow a fragment of the nations’ surplus populations —excluding much of the largely racialized lumpenproletariat and underclass— a day ‘free’ from the capitalist exploitation and alienation that comes with the traditional day-to-day of the laboring class. The timing of the implementation of the national holiday—amidst rebellions, particularly in Minneapolis, in the aftermath of Winston Smith’s clearly politically-motivated, state-sanctioned assassination—cannot be understood as anything other than yet another attempt at anesthetizing the captive Black colonies in sentimentality and symbolic gestures. 

"this is the afterlife of slavery—skewed life chances, limited access to health and education, premature death, incarceration, and impoverishment. i, too, am the afterlife of slavery."

—saidiya hartman, lose your mother: a journey along the atlantic slave route (2006)

The institution of Black slavery, that rendered Black captives as chattel, capital, productive property, was economically, culturally, and politically ubiquitous. Yet, despite its legacies and afterlives, there has been no material reckoning, or atonement for its anti-Black psychosexual and physical terror and violence. In fact, the ghosts of what is largely understood as slavery’s past, have continued to manifest in the economic polity, modern policing and prisons, and social, cultural, and ideological underpinnings, etc. Descendants of Black captives whom, in many ways, remain hyper-surveilled, overpoliced, hyper-exploited, underpaid, alienated, and often succumbed to occupation of our communities and premature death, have little-to-nothing to show for being major instruments in assembling and maintaining the global capitalist economy since we were trafficked to the Euro-Americas. But you are damn sure we have one month per year, and now an extra day, to learn about and hashtag-celebrate the most whitewashed and bleak articulations of Black historical events—events that have largely only taken place because of Black resistance to white terror, violence, and domination. 

“A critical genealogy of White Reconstruction requires close examination of the non-normative—nonwhite, queer, non-Christian, and so on—iterations of white supremacy within contemporary institutionalizations of diversity, inclusion, and multiculturalism. Such non-normativities are constitutive of (rather than incidental or exceptional to) the protocols, planning, and statecraft of contemporary counterinsurgency/domestic war, extending and complicating rather than disrupting or abolishing the historical ensembles of anti-Black and racial-colonial state violence.” 

—Dylan Rodriguez, White Reconstruction 

Since 1776 and the founding of the United States of America, the white power structure has been in a constant state of attempting to—arguably, at times, successfully—ideologically and politically sedate the most wretched, particularly the Black colonies, through incremental concessions and symbolic gestures while ultimately supplementing white rule. As Gerald Horne has taught us, this founding itself was brought into being after a successful power struggle against the British rulers to preserve the institution of Black slavery. As noted by Dylan Rodriguez in the epigraph above, and throughout his book White Reconstruction, the white settler-colonial state has had to “undergo substantive reform to remain politically and institutionally viable.” This includes, but is not limited to, incremental (neo)liberal reform as sedation and the multicultural diversification of settler-colonial, surveillance-capitalist, and imperialist apparatuses.

If we are to understand the American project itself as a consequence of intra-European counterrevolution to preserve the institution of slavery. The civil war as described by Frederick Douglass, “[starting] in the interest of slavery on both sides[...]both despising the Negro, both insulting the Negro.” The Reconstruction era as an attempt to establish a workers-democracy—in the aftermath of the countless slave revolts across North America and the Civil War ultimately ending chattel slavery—only to be defeated by ruling class forces. Jim Crow as an inevitability of the settler state and its individual deputized upholders’ idiosyncratic anxieties surrounding the collapsing synonymity of Blackness and the slave positionality. The Civil Rights Movement as an understandably decentralized reformist effort toward Black freedom, through attempts to expand the civil liberties of Black people within the American colony, co-existence with whites within the white power structure that became co-opted by the state ordained Black bourgeoisie and US intelligence leading to mild concessions. Then, we—as Black people—have to understand that we have been in an outright war of attrition with the white power structure for nearly half a millennium.

It is important to recontextualize major historical events — from the Civil War, to the crushing of the Reconstruction era, to Jim Crow, to the Civil Rights Movement, to the rise of neoliberalism and the expansion of the carceral regimes posited as the solution to Black rebellion in the 1980s, to modern policing and prisons, etc. — are all distinct types of “reforms” to politically sedate Black surplus populations and sustain white settler-capitalist hegemony. 

In an interview at Howard University, Gerald Horne discusses the weakening and marginalization of Black radical independent institutions, publications, and leaders, such as Shirley Graham, W. E. B. Du Bois, Paul Robeson, as a trade-off to disintegrate Jim Crow in return for the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, and “other examples of legislation meant to chip away at Jim Crow.” Horne goes on to question whether the price for political “freedom,” in the electoral arena (which many Black radicals would argue, in the age of neocolonialism and pseudo-independence was never actually freedom) was substantial enough to warrant celebration as a form of Black progress without the economic infrastructure and self-determination needed for true liberation and justice. Just like in the 60s, as Horne notes, we are still performing uneven trade-offs with white power. We demand an end to police terror with Defunding the Police at the outset; they give us painted Black Lives Matter streets, while celebritizing, commodifying, and cannibalizing the names and faces of Black martyrs like George Floyd and Breonna Taylor. We demand healthcare, living wages, and erased student loans; they give us a federal holiday. In the post-Civil Rights era, and the state’s crushing of Black Power, there has been a depoliticization, if not outright assassination, of Black politics: all symbolism, uneven trade-offs, bare-minimum concessions, and identity reductionist representation as a substitute for actual Black power and self-determination. In the era of neo-colonialism, with the expansion and symbolic inclusion into the plantation economy through our coerced [lumpen]proletarization, we have been anesthetized to our continued exploitation, alienation, destruction, and genocide. Liberal multiculturalism, reform, or as I would call it, political anesthetization, at the very least, temporarily, has been able to halt the “problem” of black resistance.

“The understanding that modern policing has emerged out of the dreadful history of Black enslavement brings with it an urgent need to acknowledge what is not yet behind us. The plantation isn’t, as so many of us, Black and otherwise, think or at least wish to believe, a thing of the past; rather, the plantation persists as a largely unseen superstructure shaping modern, everyday life and many of its practices, attitudes, and assumptions, even if some of these have been, over time, transformed.”

- Rinaldo Walcott, “On Property” 

Though there has been a virtual erasing of our chains and the physical plantation (at least for those of us who are not “legally” incarcerated), the plantation economy has expanded and the mere logics and ideological production have remained the same: keep the slave(s) in check. The white power structure has always been concerned with keeping its thumb on the pulse of its slave population. There has been a non-stop, coordinated counterinsurgent effort by the white power apparatus to divert energy away from the inevitable radical potentialities of the slave, colonized, dispossessed, and superexploited classes—especially as capitalism’s contradictions become far too blatant to disguise. The marking of Juneteenth National Independence Day is just a continuation of the settler society’s legacy of empty promises and symbolic gestures to supplant material gains and maintain their hegemony. 

The United States is incapable of bringing about true justice or accountability for the crimes of its psychosexual and political economy beyond these hauntingly insulting and psychopathic attempts at state recognition of its own historical aberrations through moral symbolism. True justice and accountability must be avoided at all costs by this power structure, as this would inevitably expand the political imaginations of people, leading to the incrimination of every cop, soldier, politician, wall street hack, ceo, etc., and exposing itself for what it is: illegitimate and obsolete. Once you realize that all of the violence being exported everyday in and around the US are not individual aberrations that could be changed with a shift in political leadership, but an inevitable and continual outcome of superstructures built on and sustained through anti-Black slavery, capitalism, colonialism, and imperialism, everything begins to make sense. It is liberatory. Heartbreaking. Infuriating, even. Because the solution becomes clear. It is the solution that everyone—whether subconsciously or not—is doing everything in their power to avoid coming to. It is the solution the United States and its propaganda networks spend billions of dollars every year to shield from the psyches of its captives. It is what Black captives in Haiti realized circa 1791, and are still being punished for ‘till this day. 

There is a special, psychopathic irony in the legitimation of Juneteenth through the colonial-capitalist state’s immortalizing of the liberation of the slaves through the very structural foundations in which said slaves were rendered productive property as captives, in which the legacies of slavery remain pervasive across social, cultural, political, and economic lineages. Not to mention the colonial and imperialist technologies inspired largely by the events of (anti-)Black slavery and colonialism, exported across the imperialized world for the purposes of land, capital, and resources—under the guise of (white) freedom and democracy. To paraphrase Frederick Douglass, what is the state’s recognition of Juneteenth to its Black captives? To the Afro-Palestinians living under the world’s largest open-air prison on the United States’ dime? Or the slave-labor of mineral miners in the Congo supplying the U.S. resources? How can visualizations of Nancy Pelosi and Black lawmakers singing Lift Every Voice and Sing in ceremony for the bill making Juneteenth a federal holiday—while actively rejecting Black organizers’ rallying cries that could improve Black people’s material conditions and save lives, such as Defunding the Police— signal anything other than yet another colonial lullaby to anaesthetize our dreams and efforts toward Black liberation and self-determination? While openly and unapologetically pledging their allegiance to multiculturalist white supremacy in the age of neocolonialism? 

“Let me put it this way, that from a very literal point of view, the harbors and the ports, and the railroads of the country, the economy, especially of the southern states, could not conceivably be what it has become, if they had not had and do not still have, indeed, for so long and for so many generations, cheap labor. I am stating very seriously, and this is not an overstatement: I picked the cotton, and I carried it to the market, and I built the railroads under someone else’s whip for nothing[...] This, in the land of the free, and the home of the brave. And no one can challenge that statement, it is a matter of a historical record. In another way, this dream is at the expense of the American Negro.”

—James Baldwin, 1965

Bourgeois Education and the Reproduction of Common Sense

By Christian Noakes

Republished from Peace, Land, and Bread.

Despite right-wing conspiracy theories depicting universities as a communist threat to capitalist society, academia serves as a primary institution in the reproduction of the bourgeois common sense on which capitalism relies. Furthermore, it presents its own version of knowledge as not only self-evident but “progressive,” while denouncing any effective attempt to confront capitalism and imperialism.

With a few flips of intellectual gymnastics, it often asserts that Marxism is the “master’s tools.” As such, it presents Marxism as an oppressive force and bourgeois thought as a force of liberation—albeit one in need of periodic reforms. Fundamental to this inversion is the complete misunderstanding—or at least misrepresentation—of both Marx and the larger historical tradition of Marxism.

Marx is typically treated as a class reductionist who never addressed the interrelated issues of racism, colonialism, and slavery. However, all three of these are given significant attention by Marx and were in fact treated as fundemental to the capitalist processes of accumulation, dispossession, and exploitation. One needn’t delve deep into Marx’s writings to begin to see this. In the first pages of the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels state:

“The discovery of America, the rounding of the cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie... The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connexions everywhere.”[1]

Elsewhere they state:

“The discovery of gold and silver in America, the extirpation, enslavement, and entombment in mines of the aboriginal population, the beginning of the conquest and looting of the East Indies, the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of negroes, signalized the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production. These idyllic proceedings are the chief momenta of primitive accumulation.”[2]

Marx and Engels do not equivocate the role of racial oppression and colonialism which are both a means of capitalist expansion and an outgrowth of it. Not only are these pervasive forms of oppression central to the birth of capitalism, but confronting these twin evils of racism and colonialism are essential to combating capitalism today. This is no doubt what Marx means when he noted that, “labor in the white skin cannot emancipate itself where the black skin is branded.”[3] In other words, capitalist exploitation cannot be eradicated so long as racial oppression remains intact.

To even talk about class within the hallowed walls of the academy is too often assumed to be a “white issue”—a convenient assumption that obscures the material reality of racial oppression. The explicitly anti-racist, anti-colonial, and anti-slavocratic sentiments in the writings of Marx suggest that many who, in good faith, claim Marxism is implicitly “white”—and therefore conserving racial oppression—are drawing such conclusions without doing the readings. Under the influence of bourgeois thought that pervades capitalist educational institutions, “one knows it is absurd without reading it and one doesn't read it because one knows it is absurd, and therefore one glories in one's ignorance of the position.”[4]

This fundemental misunderstanding—premised on hubristic ignorance—goes far beyond Marx and Engels to encompass all of Marxism. The Guyanese guerrilla intellectual Walter Rodney argued that the perennial debate on the relevance of Marxism across time and place is both an outgrowth of the dominant bourgeois ideology and a fundamental misunderstanding of Marxism.[5] Contrary to an understanding of Marxism as a static manual of revolution, Rodney points out that Marxism is a living thing—a methodology and ideology which concerns itself with material relations in the service of the oppressed and exploited classes.

As a methodology or a scientific lens of analysis, Marxism concerns itself with the material conditions of society, the relations of production which exist—in various forms—across time and place. Marx, and the Marxist tradition which has developed from his contributions to the revolutionary struggle, give considerable attention to the particular relations of production under capitalism—a system into which the Global South has long been forced at gun point. Rejecting Marxism as irrelevant to any context outside of 19th Century Europe follows the same logic as if one were to claim that the theory or relativity—and other developments in physics built on such understandings—only applies to the world Einstein inhabited.[6]

To deny the relevance of Marxist methodology is to inadvertanly suggest that relations of production (especially the predominant capitalist relations) do not exist—a bourgeois position that serves to preserve capitalist exploitation and the racial/colonial relations which underpin it. Despite the often good intentions, such assertions are inevitably in line with bourgeois ideology in that they serve to reproduce the common sense of capitalism which both naturalizes and obscures the social relations of capital. Such academic positions also ignore the historical role of Marxism in national liberation struggles throughout the Global South—an historical fact that makes the question of the relevance of Marxism itself irrelevant.

However, the relationship between Western academia and the Global South is not simply a matter of the erasure of national liberation struggles; it is also openly antagonistic in that the former provides the intellectual justification for imperialism under a facade of progress.

For the sake of brevity, we will limit ourselves to recent events in Bolivia.

On 10 November 2019, the Indigenous President Evo Morales was ousted in an apparent coup. Support for this coup—which would quickly reveal itself as deeply anti-Indigenous and reactionary—included a letter signed by several US academics. Signatories included the anthropologist Devin Beaulieu, a vocal opponent of the Movement for Socialism (MAS) party. Beaulieu—like many other academics—framed their opposition to MAS in pro-Indigenous language. Central to this position has been the reduction of Indigeneity to a monolith in opposition to Morales.[7] This has, in a sense, included the construction of the Indio permitido (the authorized Indian). Under a progressive facade, academics like Beaulieu sit comfortably in the imperial core, deciding for themselves which Indigenous voices are legitimate. Not unlike their colonial predecessors, they rely on a deeply imperialist conception of progress as a modern “white man’s burden.”

Other academics are not so blatantly imperialist. For instance Fabricant and Postero correctly point out how treating Indigenous peoples as a monolith is akin to defining Indio permitido and Indio prohibido (the prohibited Indian).[8] Their acknowledgement of heterogenous Indigeneity is markedly different from the treatment seen in the likes of Beaulieu. However, despite this difference they too fall into the dichotomous thinking which frames MAS as both a capitalist movement for the mestizo and an opposition to Indigenous Bolivians. Despite their apparent attempts to provide balanced analysis, they conflate efforts toward self-determination via the utilization of the country’s natural resources and the fostering non-US trade relations as “capitalist” and “neoliberal,” when in reality not utilizing national resources means a continued subjugation of Bolivia to the imperial core—a position these academics ponder from relative comfort. These (not-so-blatant) imperialist academics also refer to concerns of Indigenous groups over national development as a concern of “further colonisation by Andean coca growers.”[9] Where these coca growers are, in fact, Indigenous, this position only succeeds in weaponizing anti-colonial rhetoric against the colonized.

All of the above is emphasized to say that bourgeois academia’s primary social function is to reproduce capitalist common sense and to reinvent capitalist society with ever-new, illusory facades of progress and liberation. As a central institution of the capitalist superstructure, the university as a whole cannot help but be anything else.

As Jose Carlos Mariategui observed:

“Vain is all mental effort to conceive the apolitical school or the neutral school. The school of bourgeois order will continue to be a bourgeois school. The new school will come with the new order.”[10]

This is not to say that individuals or groups cannot exist in opposition in such institutions or that no revolutionaries should attend university. Institutions of higher learning can and should be treated as sites of struggle from which guerilla intellectuals can, in a sense, redistribute the resources and means of knowledge production otherwise kept from the public.

Following in the footsteps of revolutionaries such as Marx and Rodney, Marxists should utilize capitalist institutions to better understand and combat capitalism. However, the bourgeois academy should never be treated as something that can be adequately reformed under capitalism; or, further, that bourgeois academia is the only source of knowledge production under capitalism. Indeed, a true guerrilla intellectual need not be of the academy at all, and, in fact, cannot be a true guerrilla intellectual if they are confined to the bourgeois institutions which serve only to reproduce capitalist common sense in opposition to the true struggles of liberation.

Endnotes

[1] Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. In The Marx-Engles Reader (2nd ed.) Robert C. Tucker (ed), 275-276.

[2] Karl Marx. Capital, Vol. 1. (Chicago 1952), P.372.

[3] Karl Marx: On America and the Civil War (New York, 1972) p. 275.

[4] Walter Rodney (1975). “Marxism and African Liberation.” https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/rodney- walter/works/marxismandafrica.htm.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Jose Carlos Mariategui. “The World Crisis and the Peruvian Proletariat.” in Selected Works of José Carlos Mariátegui.